Intercultural Teacher Education in International Policy Context: Challenges and Opportunities

Abstract

Intercultural education has been a longstanding challenge for teachers’ professional development, as significant difficulties are encountered in attempts to integrate it into curricula, reduce prejudices, and strengthen school culture and social structures. This study aims to highlight the main points of international organizations’ documents on intercultural teacher education by applying a qualitative methodology. The methodology was mainly based on literature review of both primary (international organizations’ documents) and secondary sources (relevant academic papers) by following the research method of inductive thematic analysis. The data collected concerned the teaching methods and approaches in which teachers need to be trained in order to implement intercultural education effectively; the intercultural mindset and skillset that teachers should acquire through their education and training; the values of intercultural education that teachers are expected to cultivate through their intercultural training; the challenges that arise in the process of teachers’ professional development in intercultural education; examples of successful training programmes, and finally the role of school leadership in strengthening teachers’ intercultural education.

1. Introduction

The role of teachers is becoming increasingly complex and demanding, largely as a result of the significant demographic shifts taking place within contemporary societies and the subsequent changes in the cultural, linguistic, and social composition of student populations. Over the last two decades, intense migration and refugee flows have rendered Western urban societies super-diversified. As a result, student populations and classrooms are more diversified, whereas according to data derived from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2022), the number of globally displaced people is estimated to be over 103 million. These pressures were further intensified after the Russian military invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 (Těšinová et al., 2024). Within this context, the dynamic concept of interculturalism takes on particular significance at both the national and international levels. Interculturalism describes the “existence and equitable interaction of diverse cultures and the possibility of generating shared cultural expressions through dialogue and mutual respect” (UNESCO, 2006, p. 17).

Traditionally there have been two main approaches implemented by education systems aiming at managing diversity, strengthening democracy and fostering peaceful and harmonious coexistence between different cultural groups: (a) multicultural education that promotes “learning about other cultures in order to produce acceptance, or at least tolerance, of these cultures” (UNESCO, 2006, p. 18), and (b) intercultural education that “aims to go beyond passive coexistence, to achieve a developing and sustainable way of living together in multicultural societies through the creation of understanding of respect for and dialogue between the different cultural groups” (UNESCO, 2006, p. 18).

Both perspectives often overlap, though they are by no means identical. What they share, however, is the overarching goal of managing cultural diversity in ways that guarantee equity and the inclusion of all cultural groups. According to Banks (2006), such equity and inclusion can be achieved through the integration of content that reflects diverse cultural groups, an explicit focus on the processes through which knowledge is constructed, the reduction in prejudice, the adoption of equity-oriented pedagogical principles, and the establishment of an empowering school culture and social structure. Additionally, Nieto and Bode (2018) situate multicultural education within its broader sociopolitical context, underscoring the extent to which schooling is shaped by economic, social, and political conditions. From their perspective, meaningful multicultural education requires a critical engagement with systemic power inequalities, migration policies, and the entrenched norms of racism and social exclusion that permeate educational systems.

In this vein, teachers are called to ultimately manage diversity on a practical level, promote equality and inclusion, and foster students’ emotional and social competencies (Cerna et al., 2021; Rutigliano & Quarshie, 2021), while simultaneously responding to the complex demands of multicultural classrooms. Consequently, the question of their preparedness—through adequate education and training—emerges as a critical concern. Empirical research underscores the necessity for teachers to acquire the appropriate tools to integrate intercultural education into their pedagogical practice and to support students in becoming interculturally competent citizens (Dzerviniks et al., 2024; Romijn et al., 2021). Moreover, teachers’ positive attitudes, along with high-quality intercultural education and training, have a significant impact on students’ academic development, psychological well-being, recognition, support, and ongoing monitoring (Plunkett & Kronborg, 2019).

Concurrently, despite substantial efforts in the field of intercultural education and teacher training—both within formal structures (such as undergraduate and postgraduate programs) and through non-formal means (including seminars and workshops)—as well as notable improvements in their overall effectiveness, empirical evidence indicates that significant challenges persist. According to the relevant literature, these challenges primarily relate to outdated and obsolete teacher education and training curricula, limited opportunities for student teachers to acquire practical, hands-on experience, and insufficient expertise among the trainers responsible for implementing these programs (Naylor & Sayed, 2014; Parkhouse et al., 2019; Romijn et al., 2021; Semião et al., 2023).

Nevertheless, recognizing these shortcomings constitutes the first critical step toward their resolution. Within this context, international organizations, through their policy frameworks and strategic documents, provide targeted recommendations and proposals concerning the essential features of effective intercultural teacher education. Building upon this, at a theoretical level, the present paper seeks to highlight both the challenges and opportunities inherent in teachers’ professional development, as well as the fundamental components of intercultural teacher education. At a research level, it aims to analyze five contemporary documents issued by UNESCO and the OECD, with the ultimate objective of identifying new guidelines and best practices that are not yet—or only partially—integrated into teacher training programs, thereby contributing to the design of future curricula capable of further empowering educators and enhancing their effectiveness in managing cultural diversity.

2. Teacher Professional Development: Opportunities and Challenges

Professional development, often referred to as “transformative professionalism” (Anđić, 2020), is a lifelong process encompassing initial training, continuing education, and career advancement (OECD, 2024; Stevenson et al., 2016). Major training models and strategies include continuous professional development, professional learning communities, microlearning, and mentoring (Shvets et al., 2024). The continuous professional development model emphasizes activities such as seminars and workshops, grounded in the principles of adult learning, including self-directed learning and reflective practice. Professional learning communities, in turn, foster a collaborative culture and encourage collective responsibility for teaching effectiveness, while the microlearning model is based on the segmentation of knowledge into smaller units, focusing on the rapid acquisition of knowledge and skills (Panagiotopoulos et al., 2023; Sancar et al., 2021; Zhang & West, 2020).

Microlearning can be delivered through videos, recordings, and screencasts, often via online or mobile platforms, thereby ensuring flexible and accessible learning opportunities (Taylor & Hung, 2022). Finally, the mentoring model refers to a structured training approach in which an experienced educator—mentor or coach—provides guidance, advice, and sustained support to a less experienced colleague, the mentee (Rhodes & Beneicke, 2003; Mullen & Klimaitis, 2021).

The potential benefits of sustained teacher professional development, particularly when aligned with educators’ interests and aspirations, are multifaceted, extending to teachers themselves, the broader educational community, and society at large (Panagiotopoulos et al., 2023). These benefits include improvements in instructional quality, enhanced teaching effectiveness, increased job satisfaction (OECD, 2024), greater professional commitment, and reduced risk of burnout (Compagnoni et al., 2024). Consequently, teacher professional development has become a central concern in both national and international policy agendas, with considerable attention devoted to the design and implementation of effective training programs. A review of the contemporary literature reveals that initial teacher education and training programs evolve significantly over time and vary substantially across contexts, institutions, and national policy frameworks (Ainley & Carstens, 2018).

Despite the broad recognition of its importance, there is no consensus on how professional development should be conceptualized, how it facilitates teacher learning, or how it can transform prevailing educational practices (Kennedy, 2016). This lack of agreement has generated persistent challenges that hinder the development of intercultural competence. A central issue concerns the difficulty of transferring acquired knowledge into classroom practice, primarily due to constraints such as limited time, resources, instructional materials, and technological infrastructure (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017), as well as outdated curricula and insufficient alignment with contemporary needs. Teachers face difficulties not only in implementing culturally responsive practices but also in critically reflecting on the processes through which knowledge is constructed—both of which are essential for the development of intercultural competence (Banks, 2006).

Additional barriers include insufficient institutional support, financial burdens—since teachers often self-fund their training—excessive workload, professional burnout, conflicts among colleagues, limited motivation, lack of meaningful guidance, and feelings of frustration and discouragement (Karousiou et al., 2018). Structural obstacles, such as the centralized nature of educational systems and the restricted autonomy of schools, further exacerbate these challenges (Ainley & Carstens, 2018). Overcoming these obstacles is thus crucial not only for advancing teacher professional development more broadly but also for equipping educators with the knowledge, skills, and dispositions required to foster students’ growth as interculturally competent citizens.

3. Fundamental Elements of Intercultural Teacher Education

Intercultural teacher education aims at preparing teachers to effectively teach in culturally diverse classrooms. To this end, the Council of Europe (2023) proposes the following components of intercultural teacher education: (a) a common understanding of intercultural and democratic competence, interculturalism, cultural diversity, European values, and the ethics of human dignity; (b) support for educational policies that can contribute to the development of sustainable synergies between various public and private actors; (c) effective initial teacher training; (d) continuing professional development for teachers with high-quality programs that embrace cultural diversity as an important source of learning and teaching; (e) flexible and holistic curricula that respond to different cultural and linguistic backgrounds; (f) the use of appropriate pedagogical approaches; (g) the availability of digital and mixed resources and learning materials; (h) the implementation of a holistic approach to the way the school unit operates, and (i) the use of teacher trainers who have the appropriate knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Karanikola, 2025a).

In particular, teachers need to increase their knowledge and skills in all dimensions of intercultural education through the use of a common framework, vocabulary, and concepts related to interculturality (Tualaulelei, 2020; Deardorff, 2020; Tenreiro et al., 2020). In terms of supportive educational policies, the acceptance of diversity is a key pillar of European policy, with policies and guidelines adopted in this direction promoting the integration of immigrants, equal access to citizenship, the right to vote, combating discrimination, and safeguarding fundamental human rights (Herzog-Punzenberger et al., 2022). However, it should be recognized that the educational material employed for addressing diversity is largely Western-centric, which underscores the necessity of moving beyond “abyssal thinking” and recognizing that knowledge is not solely grounded in Western epistemologies, while important forms of knowledge continue to be marginalized or excluded from schools and academia (Karanikola et al., 2022; Simpson & Dervin, 2019).

Subsequently, special attention needs to be paid to initial training, as it can contribute to transforming teachers’ beliefs and attitudes (Gay, 2013), to funding continuing education units, and to providing high-quality programs that incorporate cultural diversity as a key resource in the learning process (Tenreiro et al., 2020). In the case of initial teacher training, attention to cultural diversity could be promoted through transversal integration in the curriculum (the disciplinary foundations of each subject should be articulated with those of interculturality), through specific integration in the curriculum (specific subjects in the field of cultural diversity, both mandatory and optional, are incorporated into the curriculum) and through project-based curricular integration (participation in collaborative projects with the community that favor the acquisition of intercultural competences is included in the curriculum). As for continuing education, training courses, seminars and congresses, and working groups and training in centers could be utilized (Figueredo-Canosa et al., 2020).

It is also worth noting that intercultural teacher education presupposes the design of flexible curricula that reflect different cultural perceptions and perspectives, incorporate global issues, and make use of multicultural literature (Van Driel et al., 2016). Pedagogical approaches that may serve this purpose include peer learning, intercultural competence development networks, working groups, experiential learning, and learning and practice communities. Within this context, teachers would be trained to create safe and inclusive learning environments, support personalized and differentiated learning, reflect on their practices, feel confident in managing controversial issues, and rethink their role in the classroom so that they see children as whole persons (Karafylli & Maligkoudi, 2021; Tenreiro et al., 2020).

The holistic approach aimed at creating an environment where democratic and intercultural principles and values should permeate all aspects of school: (a) curriculum development, (b) teaching methods and learning resources, (c) assessment methods, (d) school culture and climate, and (e) management and leadership (Barrett, 2020). Research shows that cooperation between school and family has a positive effect on emotional support, academic performance, and overall inclusion of children (Gay, 2014; Sacramento, 2015), whereas the use of diversity as a source of learning can facilitate the smooth social adaptation of students.

Finally, a key component of teachers’ professional development in intercultural issues is the use of trainers and educators who have specialized knowledge and skills. It is therefore important that trainers first develop the cognitive and emotional readiness to develop the intercultural competence of teachers, cultivate a sense of human identity and global perspective, develop a personal interest in the values of intercultural education, and reflect on their own identity and the identities of others (Tenreiro et al., 2020). In light of this, trainers should foster in teachers an orientation that enables them to broaden their understanding of cultural and ecological interconnections, moving beyond the constraints of modernist epistemologies, political frameworks, and economic systems (Amsler et al., 2020).

4. Materials and Methods

This research study analyzed five contemporary documents from international organizations with the ultimate aim of finding the documents’ main points on teacher education, and identifying new guidelines and good practices that are not yet—or only partially—reflected in teacher training programs. It should also be clarified that the analysis focused only on sections dealing with teacher education.

The study material was derived from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The primary material used for the study was (1) “UNESCO Guidelines on Intercultural Education”, which was produced in 2006 in Paris. This 49-page document aims to summarize the key issues surrounding intercultural education, and present the fundamental guiding principles for an intercultural approach to education, as envisaged by UNESCO; (2) UNESCO’s “Global Education Monitoring Report (2020). Inclusion and Education: All Means All”: This 502-page report assesses progress towards Sustainable Development Goal 4 on education and its ten targets, while it also discusses inclusion in education for all the people excluded from education on account of their background or abilities. It is worth noting that it is based on the explicit reference to inclusion in the 2015 Incheon Declaration and the need to ensure inclusive and equitable education for all; (3) UNESCO’s “Global Education Monitoring Report (2025). Central and Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Lead for inclusion”: This 51-page report is the result of collaboration with the Network of Education Policy Centers and provides a comparative analysis of leadership for inclusion, based on profiles of 27 countries and eight in-depth country studies from Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Estonia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova, Poland, and Slovenia. In addition, it highlights evidence on how training programs can contribute to inclusion; (4) “OECD (2023). Equity and Inclusion in Education: Finding Strength through Diversity”: This 373-page report seeks to examine how education systems can respond to increasing diversity and cultivate greater equity and inclusion in education. Its significant contribution lies in the fact that it provides examples of policies and practices, and provides the reader with policy advice on ways to encourage more inclusive education systems; and (5) “OECD. Education Policy Outlook 2024: Reshaping Teaching in a Thriving Profession from ABCs to AI”. This 145-page report is part of the Education Policy Outlook series and explores policies to attract and develop teachers, enhancing their teaching practices and professional learning. The aforementioned documents were selected as they serve as international reference points, emphasize the ways in which training programmes can foster inclusion and diversity, present illustrative examples of policies and practices, and directly address issues pertaining to the teaching profession.

The method of inductive thematic analysis was applied in order to provide a methodological and systematic analysis of the research material, analyze qualitative data, identify and interpret patterns or themes (Braun & Clarke, 2019; Elliott, 2018). Following, three classes of themes were included: the basic theme, the organizing theme and the global theme. The basic theme focuses on the simplest features of the text data, and by itself gives little information about the whole text. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the content of the text, it should be read in conjunction with the other basic themes, which together form the second category of themes, the organizing theme. The organizing theme is a middle-level theme that organizes the basic themes into groups of similar themes. Its intended purpose is also to reinforce the significance and importance of a broader theme that unites various organizational issues. In this way, a third theme is developed, the global theme. The global theme is a top-level theme and embraces the main idea of the text as a whole (Attride-Stirling, 2001). Analysis by this method involves three general stages (reduction in the text, exploration of the material, and completion of the exploration) and in more detail six stages: coding the material, which may be based on predefined criteria (e.g., specific words, themes) and examining the text against the coding framework; identifying and refining themes; description and discovery of themes; summary of themes; and interpretation of themes (Attride-Stirling, 2001). Furthermore, the analysis of the texts was not conducted through the use of specialized software. To ensure the reliability and validity of the study, several strategies were applied. First, transparency of procedure was maintained, as each stage of the research process was clearly documented. Second, inter-coder agreement was sought, with two researchers independently engaging in coding and subsequently comparing their results to ensure consistency. Third, iterative checking was employed, whereby codes and themes were repeatedly reviewed at different stages of the analysis. Finally, thick description was provided through the inclusion of detailed excerpts and contextual information from the texts under examination, allowing readers to assess the plausibility and depth of the findings (Braun & Clarke, 2020).

5. Results

The common global theme of the research material is intercultural teacher education, while six organizing themes emerged, some of which were identified in more than one document, as indicated in the brackets: (a) teaching methods and approaches in which teachers need to be trained in order to implement intercultural education effectively (UNESCO, 2006; Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, 2025; OECD, 2023); (b) the intercultural mindset and skillset that teachers should acquire through their education and training (UNESCO, 2006; Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020; OECD, 2023); (c) the values of intercultural education that teachers are expected to cultivate through their intercultural training (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020); (d) the challenges that arise in the process of teachers’ professional development in intercultural education (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020); (e) examples of successful training programs in initial teacher education and continuous professional learning (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, 2025; OECD, 2023, 2024), and (f) the role of school leadership in strengthening teachers’ intercultural education (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2025).

5.1. Intercultural Teaching Methods and Approaches

The first organizational theme that emerged was teaching methods and approaches, whereas active teaching methods, formal and non-formal teaching methods, student-centered approaches, culturally responsive and supportive teaching, collaborative teaching, whole-school approach, practical experiences in diverse environments, and structured field experiences were its basic themes. In particular, the analysis of the UNESCO (2006) text suggests as appropriate teaching methods those that “promote the learners’ active participation in the education process; integrate formal and non-formal, traditional and modern teaching methods; promote an active learning environment” (UNESCO, 2006, p. 35).

Furthermore, teaching techniques and approaches that divide and stigmatize students based on their individual characteristics should be rejected in favour of student-centered approaches that provide academic goals, confront students’ potential strengths and weaknesses, and alleviate emerging social and behavioral challenges (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, p. 138). It is also reported that in high-income countries, two main approaches have been deployed in reaction to growing immigration: (a) the culturally responsive teaching approach to teacher education, which focuses on skills and dispositions teachers need to teach diverse student populations, and (b) the approach that supports teachers in helping students who may not speak the language of instruction, enabling diverse learner groups to use languages as both a communication and learning tool (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, p. 148).

In addition, teaching methods, such as collaborative teaching and the whole-school approach, are proposed as suitable. Cooperative teaching could be transformative, since the active involvement of all students, parents, and communities may contribute to improving student learning, adjustment, and well-being. When families are supportive, students indicate a stronger sense of belonging at school and higher levels of fulfillment in school and life (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2025, p. 40). Besides, the whole-school approach contributes to promoting students’ social and emotional development and the overall well-being of the school. In this vein, parental engagement could be empowered through relevant learning plans, intercultural activities, and language support. For instance, in Georgia, school principals empower parents to express their views and concerns about their children’s education, while providing them with resources and allowing them to participate in school decisions (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2025, p. 40).

A special reference is also made to the educational method Persona Doll, which may approach and optimize the concept of diversity, since each student can be given a persona doll with backgrounds and life experiences different from their own, and is required to act as an advocate for the child personified by the doll. In addition, practical experiences in diverse environments could have positive impacts on student teachers, helping them to reflect on and question their values and attitudes as well as supporting the acquisition of knowledge and competences relating to diversity, equity and inclusion in education (OECD, 2023, p. 192). Finally, structured field experiences have been recognized as helping to foster prospective teachers’ cultural awareness when combined with opportunities for meaningful reflection (OECD, 2023).

5.2. Teachers’ Intercultural Mindset and Skillset

The second organizing theme that arose was “mindset and skillset”, with the main basic themes being topics of knowledge (e.g., culture, history, language acquisition, psychology, teaching methods), kind of skills (e.g., skills to develop and assess curricula, intercultural communication, critical reflection, global competence), and attitudes (e.g., being open-minded, empathy).

In particular, teachers’ mindset and skillset should include instructional techniques, classroom management, learning assessment methods (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020). The cognitive areas for equitable and inclusive teaching are broad and may include cultural anthropology, social psychology, children’s cognitive development, integrated learning, and second language acquisition. Teachers could also benefit from gaining knowledge of the historical, social, and cultural context of the communities in which they are teaching. This has been recognized “as a key area for teacher professional development in relation to teaching indigenous students, along with knowledge of the relevant indigenous language” (OECD, 2023, p. 187). Supporting the learning of all students also requires “teachers to have strong theoretical knowledge of differentiated instruction and the skills to put it into practice” (OECD, 2023, p. 188).

Emphasis is put on the following aspects as well: a deep understanding of the intercultural paradigm in education and its implications for transforming everyday practice in classrooms, schools, and communities; a critical awareness of the role that education should play in the fight against racism and discrimination; a rights-based approach to education and learning; the capacity to design, implement, and assess locally determined school curricula based on the needs and expectations of students and the communities to which they belong; the skills to involve students from non-dominant cultures into the learning experience; the skills to take into consideration the heterogeneity of students; the possession of methods and techniques of observation, listening, and intercultural communication; knowledge of appropriate assessment procedures and an open mind for continuous evaluation, assessment, and redefinition of methods (UNESCO, 2006, p. 36); a critical awareness of the role that local communities and local knowledge systems, languages and social practices play in the learning process and construction of the person in national, regional and global societies; knowledge of the history of civilization and anthropology so as to facilitate better understanding and the ability to convey the idea of the plural, dynamic, relative and complementary nature of cultures (UNESCO, 2006, p. 38).

Critical reflection is another key skill, which “refers to the process by which individuals identify the assumptions behind their actions, understand the historical and cultural origins of these assumptions, question their meaning, develop alternative ways of acting» (OECD, 2023, p. 189), and dismantle their own unconscious biases (OECD, 2023). In the light of highly globalized societies with their concomitant hyper-diversity, the development of global competence is also of major importance. It is also worth to refer to teachers’ skill to promote a growth mindset, which reminds us of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development and essentially seeks to help individuals perceive their abilities and knowledge as something that can be developed through systematic effort and appropriate strategies, that can have positive effects on learning, higher motivation, and performance, especially for students from disadvantaged backgrounds (OECD, 2023, p. 189).

5.3. Teachers’ Intercultural Values

The third organizing theme that emerged was “values”, with the following basic themes: support, work with others, valuing learner diversity, and engaging in professional development. Particularly, values that should govern inclusive and intercultural education programs for teachers relate to the following key points: (a) “supporting all learners: promote academic, practical, social and emotional learning for all, engage effective teaching approaches in heterogenous classes based on understanding of a variety of learning processes and how to support them”; (b) “working with others: work with parents and families to engage them effectively in learning, work with other education professionals, including collaboration with other teachers”; (c) “valuing learner diversity: understand inclusive education, respect, value and view learner diversity as an asset”; and (d) “engaging in professional development: be reflective practitioners, view initial teacher education as the foundation for ongoing professional learning” (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, p. 138).

5.4. Challenges of Intercultural Education

The fourth organizing theme’s basic themes were lack of support, resources, equipment, inappropriate teacher training, limited school autonomy, programmes’ quality, difficulties of implementation, overambitious curricula, and poor representativeness. In detail, the challenges relate to the inadequate evaluation of teacher training and education programs on issues of diversity and inclusion, the difficulty of implementing intercultural education, the lack of a supportive environment and appropriate working conditions, the limited autonomy of schools, and weak professional teacher networks. Specifically, according to the text, data collected on training does not “contain sufficient information on coverage and quality” (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, p. 141). Furthermore, according to a relative survey, teachers in Finland questioned the feasibility of inclusion and its merit for all students «without fundamental shifts in the system and investment levels” (p. 141). Following this, in Japan, teachers expressed generally positive attitudes towards inclusion but «had concerns about implementation» (p. 141), partly due to lack of belief in their ability to carry out activities that would achieve inclusion.

Other major factors that impede the effective implementation of intercultural teacher training in the classroom include overcrowded classrooms, insufficient teaching resources, overly ambitious curricula, and the shortage of specialized staff such as psychologists (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020). Finally, the homogeneity observed in the teaching profession is another obstacle. Data from Europe showed that teachers with migrant backgrounds were under-represented relative to the student body. The same is true for the United States of America, as African American or Hispanic teachers are increasingly under-represented relative to the student population. However, “in India, there has been progress in terms of historically disadvantaged groups, since between 2005 and 2013, the share of teachers from scheduled castes, which constitute 16% of the country’s population, increased from 9% to 13%, since that some relative policies provided some incentives” (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, p. 152).

5.5. Εxamples of Successful Training Programs in Initial Teacher Education and Continuous Professional Learning

The fifth organizing theme was about successful training programs in initial education and continuous professional learning, whereas its basic themes were curricula formulation and implementation, evaluation of teachers, heterogeneity of teaching staff, topics and methodology of learning, networks, and digital tools. Specifically, in Colombia, the “National Bilingual Programme” helps professionalize bilingual teachers and their education, whereas in Costa Rica, a 2019 decree stipulates that indigenous educator training and participation in curricula formulation and implementation should be promoted and facilitated. In Peru, the “National Bilingual Intercultural Education Plan” recognizes initial and in-service teacher education as the most critical aspect of implementation (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, p. 144). In this vein, Cambodia’s 2015 “Teacher Policy Action Plan” was to promote continuous professional development through incentives and credits on inclusive education and multilingualism, especially for remote and underperforming schools (as cited in Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020).

In Slovenia, good practices in professional development and evaluation of teachers include the National School for Leadership in Education, which encourages peer-to-peer learning, the “Network Learning Schools and Kindergartens”, which contributes to the communication of good practices and seeks peer support, and the “Illusion of Equality—Addressing Diversity for Inclusive Educational Institutions Initiative”, which is a three-year collaboration for school leaders to enhance their knowledge of inclusion implementation (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, p. 42). In addition, they can promote “self-evaluation that promotes reflection on the effectiveness of teaching strategies” (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2025, p. 42). In the same vein, Estonia has introduced teacher self-assessments and competency assessments based on a comprehensive 360° feedback method. Moldova’s professional competency standards for management staff, adopted in 2018 and also addressing intercultural skills, non-discrimination, and social inclusion, are serving as a useful tool for self-assessment and to identify professional development needs (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2025, p. 42).

It is worth remarking that in Australia, students at the University of Melbourne have the opportunity to develop their expertise in working with Indigenous students and communities through the “Place-Based Elective”. The Elective includes a professional practice component, where student teachers live and work with an Indigenous community, and an on-campus learning component, where student teachers develop their knowledge and skills in this area by engaging with the research literature and sharing their learning experiences with others (OECD, 2023). Besides, in the United States, the School of Education at Indiana University offers several cultural immersion programmes that provide pre-service teachers with the opportunity to develop their skills in teaching students from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds (OECD, 2023). In Norway the values of “equality and solidarity” and “insight into cultural diversity” are explicitly promoted within the National Framework Curriculum for Teacher Education, and the Education Act for Primary and Secondary Education and Training specifies diversity as one of the main objectives for Initial Teacher Education (OECD, 2023, p. 194).

Concerning the examples of continuous professional learning, in New Brunswick, Canada, an online continuous professional learning course on teaching in culturally and linguistically diverse settings is available to help equip teachers to implement inclusive pedagogy for students with an immigrant background, students belonging to ethnic or national minorities, and Indigenous students. In Italy and Spain, the Erasmus Training Academy offers online continuous professional learning courses for teachers on topics such as enhancing diversity and tolerance in the classroom, addressing prejudice and discrimination, preventing conflict and early school leaving, and promoting socioemotional (OECD, 2023, p. 195).

Next, in the French Community of Belgium, teachers are entitled to take six half-days of working time per year to engage in continuous professional learning. Similarly, in Victoria, Australia, each teacher is entitled to four dedicated days per year to engage in continuous professional learning to improve their teaching. School-wide professional learning days have also been implemented in several OECD education systems as a way to ensure dedicated time to professional learning, to complement teachers’ self-directed or individual learning, and to advance school improvement. In Canada, the Alberta Teachers’ Association plays a key role in teachers’ continuous professional learning and has shifted its focus from individualized professional learning to more collaborative school-based activities that foster co-operation and encourage critical reflection. Some of the activities include: (a) Action research: This involves teachers asking how a current practice might be improved and then studying the relevant research to select a potential approach. Teachers use their classrooms as research sites by investigating their own teaching through experiments to see what is effective in facilitating co-operative learning among students; (b) classroom and school visits: Teachers are encouraged to visit colleagues teaching in other classrooms to view innovative teaching practices, and expand and refine their own pedagogical strategies; (c) collaborative curriculum development: By working together, teachers design new planning materials, teaching methods, resource materials and assessment tools, and they can delve deeply into their subject matter (OECD, 2023, p. 197).

Then, the Ontario Ministry of Education has produced a series of “Capacity Building” briefs that share actionable strategies that teachers and school leaders can implement to improve their practice, whereas Korea also encourages the sharing of knowledge among teachers by funding action research by teachers and counting these efforts towards their professional development requirements (OECD, 2023, p. 199).

Thereafter, in New Zealand, the Teacher Supply Package program seeks to attract teachers from abroad, recognizing migration as a key means of teacher education. In this way, teachers gain well-structured and supported experiences that also support them in developing a deep understanding of the educational environments in which they will work (OECD, 2024, p. 54). Another good practice, known as “hybrid teachers,” is implemented in the Netherlands, where teachers can combine their work at school with a job in another field. It is estimated that around 50,000 teachers work in this way, and various initiatives have been developed to facilitate hybrid teaching. For example, the Brainport Eindhoven region, in collaboration with various educational institutions and companies, has launched a pilot program to give technicians the opportunity to engage in hybrid teaching for 4 to 8 h per week in vocational education and training (OECD, 2024, p. 59). Additionally, the French Community of Belgium is introducing “guest teachers”, which opens the education system to professionals from diverse backgrounds. This initiative aims to allow school boards in secondary education, part-time arts education, and adult education centers to convert teaching hours into credits to appoint guest lecturers (OECD, 2024, p. 59).

Victoria (Australia) is expanding a promising pilot program called Career Start, which provides guidance and support to all public schools in the state. This entails a reduction in face-to-face teaching time to emphasize induction support, a dedicated mentor to accelerate the development of teachers’ teaching practice, networking opportunities within regional learning coalitions, and professional development to build professional practice, professional identity, and support well-being (OECD, 2024, p. 92). In this spirit, England has established the right for all new teachers to receive a two-year funded package for organized professional development. This includes extra time outside school hours for training and mentoring during the first two years, adapted training materials for them and their mentors, and focused support from approved providers (OECD, 2024, p. 92). Singapore’s One Portal All Learners platform allows educators to create online collaboration groups, facilitating asynchronous knowledge construction that complements interpersonal interactions. Users appreciate the platform’s interoperability with mobile technologies and its integrated connection to existing email systems (OECD, 2024, p. 94).

In Alberta (Canada), the “Teacher Growth, Supervision and Evaluation Policy” established a compulsory annual dialogue between teachers and school principals regarding teachers’ professional development based on their specific needs. Their individual needs are first identified by the teacher and approved by the school principal or a group of teachers appointed by the school administration. Teachers’ self-assessment is also facilitated by the digital tool “Reflections on my professional practice, which contributes to the creation of a profile of strengths and parameters to be taken into consideration for professional development and includes suggested resources to support implementation (OECD, 2024, p. 96). Finally, Japan’s National Teacher Professional Development Platform (2023, as cited in OECD, 2024, p. 96) enable teachers to evaluate the quality of their professional learning and its impact on their practice, whereas in Wales (United Kingdom), teachers, leaders and teaching assistants can use the digital Professional Learning Passport to self-assess their learning needs, track their development activities, and self-evaluate effectiveness.

5.6. School Leadership and Teachers’ Development

Finally, the sixth organizing theme is “school leaders and professional development”, whereas its basic themes are school ethos and autonomy. Particularly, school leaders are deemed to be important agents in the education and training of teachers on intercultural issues, as they are the ones who can act as pioneers and mentors, articulate and communicate a vision based on inclusive values and attitudes, encourage individualized education plans, flexible curricula, and assessments, follow a collaborative approach to promote inclusion, targets teachers’ development to their schools’ unique needs, and foster an inclusive school ethos (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2025, p. 10). Such an ethos is the result of various factors, according to the text, such as the “overarching social and cultural context” (p. 16); the education legislation and policy framework, which has made considerable progress over the last thirty-five years in an effort to harmonize national policies with those of the European Union and international organizations; individual values and attitudes of school staff and community members; “personality traits, behaviours, styles, motivations and beliefs of school leaders” (p. 16).

The autonomy of school leaders to engage in the professional development of their teachers and staff has a positive impact on teaching and learning as well. 85% of countries in Central and Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia require principals to support the professional development of their staff. School principals in Estonia are vested with a high degree of autonomy in decisions concerning the professional development of teachers. In addition, they can suggest additional training and personalized courses when deemed necessary. Professional development could be promoted “through professional learning communities and knowledge networks”, “coaching and mentoring programmes”, which could strengthen trust and open communication among teachers, … increase motivation and build positive relationships” (Global Education Monitoring Report, 2025, p. 42).

6. Discussion

Through the present thematic analysis of the five UNESCO and OECD documents, an effort has been made to delineate contemporary trends, policy guidelines, and exemplary practices in the field of intercultural teacher training. The analysis was conducted on the basis of the core components of intercultural teacher education, as articulated by the Council of Europe (2023) and further substantiated in the relevant scholarly literature. The findings suggest that teacher education is predicated upon the acquisition of context-appropriate teaching methods and approaches, the cultivation of an intercultural mindset and skillset, and the internalization of the fundamental values of human rights. Equally central is the adoption and diffusion of good practices that have been successfully implemented across diverse educational contexts. Of particular significance is the role of school leadership, which is increasingly positioned as the primary agent in the design and implementation of in-service professional development initiatives.

From the analysis, it becomes evident that both UNESCO and OECD policies encourage reforms and propose guidelines that could empower teachers to work with diverse populations, address systemic discrimination, and foster inclusive pedagogy. For both international organizations, teacher readiness is understood as the acquisition of intercultural knowledge and skills, a perspective widely supported by scholars in the field. (Banks, 2006; Deardorff, 2020; Gay, 2014). In this vein, active teaching techniques, student-centered pedagogical approaches, culturally responsive and supportive instruction, collaborative teaching models, whole-school approaches, practical experiences in diverse environments, and structured field placements constitute central methods and approaches with which teachers are expected to be conversant. Such techniques are inherently contextualized and flexible, as they are designed to address the complex and dynamic realities of the school environment. They serve to bridge theory and practice, stimulate critical reflection, promote collaboration with all stakeholders in the school community, and foster dialogical engagement (Figueredo-Canosa et al., 2020; Yu, 2023).

Moreover, it should be acknowledged that teachers are adult learners who bring into the educational process a wealth of prior experiences, knowledge, and skills, all of which may be mobilized as valuable resources for new learning. Consequently, teachers ought to be granted the opportunity to select professional learning activities that align with their genuine needs and aspirations, rather than functioning as passive recipients of externally provided knowledge and instruction. In this respect, training practices such as video-recorded lessons, demonstration teaching, lesson planning, and feedback from peers, experts, and mentors are considered particularly effective (UNESCO & International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030, 2024; Wang & Wang, 2023; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Karanikola & Panagiotopoulos, 2023; Karanikola, 2025b).

Experiential learning further enhances the cultivation of teamwork and a cooperative ethos. Complementary methods, including translanguaging, identity texts, and persona dolls, not only provide motivation for active participation within the group but also function as pedagogical tools fostering both intellectual and personal development (Cummins, 2019; Karanikola, 2024). Concurrently, the integration of diverse teaching platforms, alongside contemporary digital, blended, and open educational resources, ensures access to multimodal material capable of reflecting the diversity of both student and teaching populations (Auger, 2023).

With respect to the mindset and skillset that teachers should acquire through training in order to manage classroom diversity effectively, the literature highlights a range of essential dimensions. These include understanding the cultural norms and expectations of others; cultivating self-awareness and self-understanding in relation to one’s own cultural assumptions and biases (Deardorff, 2020); reflecting critically on pedagogical approaches and practices; and developing knowledge of the sociocultural dimensions of languages and the ways in which they shape communication, interaction, and behavior among students. Equally important is an awareness of broader dimensions associated with politics, cultures, religions, history, and the media, alongside an understanding of how institutionalized knowledge may contribute to the reinforcement of stereotypes concerning racial and ethnic groups (Tenreiro et al., 2020). In parallel, attributes such as responsibility, self-confidence, and belief in one’s own capacities are identified as positive attitudes that foster the recognition of diversity and the acquisition of intercultural competence (Barrett, 2020; Karanikola, 2025a). Moreover, the ability of teachers to promote a growth mindset is considered particularly significant, as it reflects “a belief that intelligence, personality and other such qualities can be cultivated, and a tendency to interpret human behaviour in terms of context-sensitive psychological processes” (Rissanen & Kuusisto, 2023, p. 948).

In this regard, the Guidelines on Intercultural Education (UNESCO, 2006) emphasize that appropriate intercultural teacher education should aim at familiarizing teachers with the cultural heritage of their own country, raising awareness of the educational and cultural needs of their students, and adapting educational materials and resources to the requirements of groups whose linguistic and cultural capital differ from the dominant one. It should further encourage the embracing of diversity, the promotion of interaction between the school and the broader community, the recognition of learners as active carriers of culture, and the systematic planning and development of curricula and teaching materials.

Subsequently, the question of values in the intercultural development of educators emerges as particularly salient. Values constitute the foundational principles of intercultural education and function as guiding elements for inclusive societies. Concepts such as tolerance, respect, empathy, solidarity, love for others, and equality are oriented toward achieving the harmonious coexistence of all individuals. Within the European context, intercultural values are generally accepted as an integral part of democratic values (Fernández et al., 2014); however, their implementation varies across national contexts. For instance, in Spain, intercultural values are explicitly taught in compulsory secondary education through dedicated courses, whereas in Norway, no separate subject addressing intercultural values is offered (Boghian, 2018). It is worth noting that values are explicitly referenced in UNESCO’s texts. Indeed, UNESCO’s philosophy on values is grounded in a universal humanism that promotes peace, solidarity, and equality among people worldwide.

The considerable challenges associated with teacher education, as mainly presented in UNESCO’s texts, cannot be overlooked. Among the most pressing are outdated curricula, the inability to adapt to contemporary trends and needs, limited opportunities for practical learning, and the insufficient experience of the trainers responsible for implementing professional development programs (Naylor & Sayed, 2014). Additionally, guidelines for integrating and assessing intercultural competence in teacher education remain ambiguous, and there is rarely a systematic approach to preparing trainers to address issues of diversity (Tenreiro et al., 2020). Equally significant are the challenges stemming from limited and temporary teaching staff, reliance on outdated pedagogical models, and the persistence of monocultural teaching methods (Antoniadou et al., 2022; Karanikola et al., 2022).

At the same time, the academic community has the potential to play a more decisive role in reinforcing interculturalism among students at both the micro level—through lesson plans, curricula, teaching methodologies, and learning materials—and the macro level, which encompasses language policies, curriculum structures, adequate staff training, and recruitment policies for both staff and students (Karanikola, 2025c). In line with these considerations, the implementation, diffusion, and transfer of effective practices has emerged as a contemporary and widely adopted mechanism of cooperation between educational authorities and institutions. Such practices facilitate the exchange of experiences, materials, and actions that aim to prevent and counter discrimination while promoting diversity and inclusion within schools (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2023). At the same time, they contribute to the advancement of democratic and inclusive education, ensuring that no group is excluded.

Regarding the role of school leadership, it appears that it can foster the cultivation of an intercultural and inclusive ethos, support the establishment of a professional learning culture (Day, 1999; Schein, 2004; Easton, 2008), and facilitate the transformation of schools into learning organizations (Day, 1999). Moreover, it contributes to shaping a positive learning climate in which teachers feel encouraged to identify areas requiring intervention and to seek appropriate support for their improvement (Nawab & Quraishi, 2024). Nevertheless, the development of an authentic and inclusive school ethos remains a demanding endeavor. It requires careful and sustained reflection on the part of school leaders concerning multiple aspects of their professional responsibilities, which may prove challenging, controversial, or culturally sensitive (Sellars, 2021). Within this context, the European Commission (Looney et al., 2022) underscores the importance of providing education leaders with access to professional learning communities and networks that support their ongoing professional growth. Active participation in such networks and communities of practice not only strengthens the effectiveness of school leadership but also enhances the attractiveness of the teaching profession by creating forums for dialogue, idea exchange, and the dissemination of innovative practices (Karanikola, 2025a; Paniagua & Istance, 2018).

In conclusion, intercultural education and training can be understood as a profoundly transformative process (Banks, 2006), one that requires teachers to engage in sustained critical self-reflection and self-critique. This transformative engagement allows educators to interrogate the construction of their own identities and cultural orientations, as well as the ways in which they position themselves in relation to diversity. In doing so, they may be led beyond a constructivist perspective—which, although it highlights the socially constructed nature of cultural identity, often neglects the material and structural dimensions of power that shape intercultural encounters—towards a poststructuralist lens. Poststructuralism foregrounds the constitutive role of discourse and power in shaping cultural identities, underscoring that both culture and knowledge are historically situated social constructions, legitimized or marginalized within hegemonic systems of power (Conti, 2025). From this vantage point, intercultural teacher education should move beyond surface-level pedagogical adjustments to critically expose and challenge the ideological forces, political agendas, and hegemonic discourses that underpin training interventions. This also requires attending to the silenced and unsilenced voices that such interventions privilege or suppress, thereby making visible the power relations and exclusions that too often remain hidden beneath the rhetoric of diversity and inclusion (Simpson & Dervin, 2019).

7. Conclusions

In light of the foregoing, this study sought to critically examine the fundamental dimensions of intercultural teacher education as articulated in international discourse. Within such discourse, acceptance of diversity is advanced as a central pillar of policy frameworks promoted by international organizations. These frameworks are designed to foster the integration of immigrants, guarantee equal access to citizenship and voting rights, combat discrimination, and safeguard fundamental human rights. However, the ultimate aim of these initiatives is not merely the management of diversity but the confrontation of the structural and systemic challenges that characterize contemporary multilingual and multicultural school environments (Herzog-Punzenberger et al., 2022).

As a corollary, increasing emphasis is placed on the cultivation of teachers’ professional competence in interculturalism, framed as essential for the demonstration of self-efficacy in their pedagogical practice. Yet, the effectiveness of intercultural education depends not only on tailoring content to the needs of teachers and students or adapting it to the characteristics of particular schools and classrooms. It should also be grounded in genuine cooperation and dialogical interaction, while at the same time resisting the reduction in intercultural education to technocratic solutions or decontextualized skill-building. Contemporary technologies and innovative pedagogical tools can indeed provide valuable resources, but without critical reflection on the ideologies, power relations, and hegemonic discourses that shape their use, such tools risk reinforcing, rather than transforming, existing inequities.

Furthermore, future research should not only explore additional dimensions of teacher professional education—such as the dynamics of the trainee–trainer relationship, the pedagogical efficacy of training methods, and the institutional frameworks responsible for program implementation—but also interrogate how these dimensions are implicated in broader sociopolitical contexts. In this way, intercultural teacher education can move beyond accommodationist approaches towards a transformative project that foregrounds equity, social justice, and the democratization of education.

In conclusion, we should not overlook the dimension of efficiency and effectiveness of international organizations’ policies, nor the extent to which their implementation is feasible across different national contexts. Moreover, although UNESCO’s policies frame education as a fundamental human right, OECD’s policies often prioritize economic parameters and dimensions that are largely rooted in Western-centric perspectives. In this way, they may unintentionally reproduce dominant cultural norms and hierarchies. Therefore, a critical approach is required in both the interpretation and application of these policies within national contexts, so that they do not simply become a transfer of knowledge and guidelines. Instead, there should be an emphasis on strengthening the participation of marginalized groups in policy-making and enriching the frameworks of international organizations with non-Western epistemologies.