1. Introduction
For several decades now, situations of violence in the school context have been a matter of concern for school management teams, teachers, families, and the educational community in general. In this sense, the perception of the problem has changed. It has moved from positions of denial or minimisation to others that go beyond mere recognition and are concerned with the prevention of such behaviour. We would like to distinguish between school violence and bullying, the former being a one-off situation aimed at causing some kind of harm, while the latter has a continuity over time, i.e., it is a repeated form of violence [
1].
Bullying is not a static and immutable phenomenon, and although exclusion, intimidation, or aggression have always existed, the channels through which they are produced (and reproduced) are becoming increasingly diverse. The concept of bullying, traditionally associated with school violence, has been amplified by technological advances. This has led to new forms of violence, such as the phenomenon of cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is repeated and sustained harassment based on intimidation, humiliation, pressure, degradation, or threats using technological devices and the internet—most commonly phone calls, emails, instant messaging tools, and social networking sites [
2,
3]. It is a multifaceted problem that takes many forms and can affect people of all ages. The field of education and the phenomenon of cyberbullying are, therefore, closely linked and, as detailed below, a significant number of cases involve schoolchildren, making the educational environment a key to prevention, awareness raising, and also to tackling the problem once these behaviours have occurred.
Focusing on the adolescent population, several studies have concurred in pointing out several consequences of cyberbullying, such as a decrease in self-esteem, increased isolation, or distancing from the peer group, anxiety and depression, risk behaviours such as substance use, disorders (sleep, eating, etc.), and even suicidal ideation and behaviour in the most extreme cases [
4,
5,
6]. Three main actors are involved in this type of violence: the bullied, the bully, and the witnesses, whose role as bystanders can either reduce or increase the impact [
7,
8]. In this sense, negative behaviours in cyberbullying cases range from the most common forms, such as insults, harassment, intimidation and threats, isolation, and slander, to the distribution of images or videos without consent, identity theft, sextortion, grooming, viruses or malware, sharing personal data, or registering on undesired web services [
9].
Regarding variables related to cyberbullying situations, there seems to be no clear consensus on gender as a predictor. Although some studies show that girls are more likely to be victims [
6,
10], later studies were unable to confirm significant differences [
11,
12]. As for age, we conclude that it is an explanatory variable for differences in bullying behaviour. It would be interesting for schools to consider adapting effective prevention programmes to specific age groups rather than to the gender of the students [
12,
13,
14].
A third important variable is the medium used to perpetrate violence: mobile devices and the internet. According to UNICEF’s study on the impact of technology on adolescents, based on a sample of 41,508 adolescents in Spain, the average age at which adolescents have their first mobile phone is 10.96 years. In terms of connectivity, 98% have Wi-Fi at home and 90.8% go online every day or almost every day. These worrying figures show that 31.5% use the internet for more than 5 h a week, 58.4% sleep with their tablet or mobile phone in their bedroom, and of these, 21.6% are online after midnight every day or almost every day [
15]. According to the same study, 2 out of 10 adolescents may be victims of online bullying, a figure the European Commission estimates to be higher, at 3 out of 10 [
16]. Sending personal photos and videos of a sexual nature or accepting friend requests from strangers on social networking sites are two factors that increase the likelihood of being bullied both at school and online. Online gambling or problematic gaming, contact with strangers, and even behaviours such as sexting are associated not only with online behaviour but also with cyberbullying [
12,
17].
Other not insignificant issues that have been addressed in recent literature in relation to cyberbullying are risk behaviours due to overexposure to the internet and intimate partner violence among adolescents. Cyberbullying is related to what we might call traditional bullying, along with problematic internet use, online gaming, and other risk behaviours such as drug use. On the one hand, there is a high probability, over 50%, that adolescent bullies are occasional cyberaggressors [
18]. On the other hand, although the literature on addictions and their relationship to cyberbullying is not extensive, recent studies seem to suggest that it often occurs in combination with a number of factors and that the adolescents involved had significantly higher rates of risk behaviours and substance use [
19]. It follows that the same adolescents who engage in online violence are more likely to repeat these behaviours in intimate partner relationships [
20,
21]. In [
20], the authors found a link between cyberbullying and the use of social networks by adolescents: “Cyberbullying as gender-based violence generally occurs without physical coincidence, and repetition becomes the most common privacy invasion strategy used by bullies” [
21] (p. 4). The danger lies in the seemingly harmless nature of these attitudes. They are generally perceived as a nuisance rather than a situation of control and harassment on the part of adolescents. Consequently, they might end up naturalising behaviours such as checking their mobile devices, controlling their activity and location, sending messages, and requesting photos or videos.
The aim of this work is to answer questions relating to the countries, authors, and journals where we can find information to learn more, discover established networks and the impact of works published on the subject, and study in depth the issues addressed in the papers and the conclusions that will allow specific programmes to be designed based on scientific evidence.
2. Method
This work is framed within phase I of the research project “Digital Teaching Materials in Compulsory Secondary Education. Analysis and proposals for school and socio-family use (Secundari@ Digit@l)”, presented at the 2022 State Subprogram for Knowledge Generation of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation. We combine bibliometric analysis and content analysis to delve deeper into the prevalence of cyberbullying.
We conducted a bibliometric analysis in order to quantify the scientific literature produced on cyberbullying in childhood and adolescence. This approach allowed us to identify variables related to productivity, collaboration, impact, and dispersion (
Table 1) [
22].
We chose the Scopus database because of its size and the quality of the documents it contains [
23]. The search included the following combination of terms and Boolean operators: “cyberbullying OR bullying AND technology AND youth OR teenager OR minor OR child”, seen in titles, abstracts or keywords.
The PRISMA method [
24], with 4 phases, was used to select the documents that we would then analyse (
Figure 1).
A total of 419 documents were retrieved. We applied a number of filters, including publication date (limited to the last ten years) and document type (papers other than literature reviews). We did not consider language or subject restrictions. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, a total of 131 papers were selected. The level of inter-coder agreement was high, with a Cohen’s Kappa value of k = 0.81.
The content analysis deepened the research conducted and identified three dimensions of analysis, which emerged from the independent reading of three researchers [
25] and are listed in
Table 2.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
Based on a combination of bibliometrics and content analysis, this work has made it possible to identify key authors, countries, and journals and to learn more about the phenomenon of cyberbullying and its consequences.
The results of the bibliometric analysis show that the growth of scientific information on this topic is limited. This is justified by the fact that the concept of cyberbullying is relatively new, as can be seen from the number of papers published in the last decade, which is just over one hundred.
We did not identify any major producers, and the distribution of publications in concentric zones of productivity is divided into a well-differentiated core, in line with previous work such as [
81]. As in prior studies, we observed a predominance of the fields of social sciences, psychology, and medicine [
82], the weight of the USA as a reference country, and English as a vehicular language [
83]. The journal Computers in Human Behavior has published the highest number of papers on cyberbullying. The degree of collaboration between authors is high and intra-institutional or intra-national networks are most common [
84], while the impact of publications is low [
85].
With regard to the content analysis of the papers, a large number of research studies focus on the topic in question using quantitative methods, and the main instruments are questionnaires, with the European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (ECIPQ) standing out, both in terms of application and in terms of papers testing its validity.
The main risk factors associated with cyberbullying are a high level of exposure to technology (and especially to violent content), including through social networks and video games. The use of digital devices can be so intense that alarming situations of dependency are often encountered [
86].
In terms of the prevalence of the phenomenon, we found that it affects almost half of teenagers between the ages of 12 and 18, and that females and members of the LGBTIQ+ community are more likely to be affected. Another observation is that victims of online bullying tend to also be bullied in person [
74]. In this line, we found a great reluctance to tell adults—and even peers—about the bullying situation, which significantly hinders intervention and treatment of the cause and its consequences.
The results, therefore, reinforce the idea that it is important to educate teachers, families, students, and society as a whole about the warning signs of victims. Society also needs to focus on the behaviour of the aggressors themselves in order to reduce the prevalence of this phenomenon and the potential consequences of this type of bullying among young people.
One of the keys to educational intervention in this area is the digital literacy of children and adolescents, both at school and in the family context. Such interventions must promote more responsible use of technologies and raise awareness of online risks [
87].
Furthermore, there are several trends in the literature on cyberbullying prevention related to the analysis of technological tools designed to assist in detection and prevention.
In view of the results, our proposal is to address not only the victims of cyberbullying but the entire adolescent population, as well as other educational agents, including families and the immediate environment. To this end, it is important to design and implement training and prevention programmes in schools and other institutions (city councils, health centres, socio-cultural centres, etc.). These programmes should not be limited to specific actions but should aim to reduce risks and provide tools and strategies for prevention and coping.
The main limitation of our work is the fact that we used only one database, Scopus, to identify the documents. Scopus was chosen because of its recognised prestige and the number of documents deposited in it.
Therefore, future lines of research should include carrying out analyses using other databases or limiting the analysis to specific contexts, focusing on a particular territory. It would also be useful to analyse specific intervention programmes in order to establish guidelines for action based on scientific evidence. This would allow for the design of cyberbullying prevention programmes that revolve around axes such as media literacy for a more responsible use of social networks, mediation and peaceful conflict resolution, and emotional intelligence.