Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Community-Based Pharmacies: A Scoping Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Identifying Relevant Studies
2.2. Select the (Relevant) Studies
2.3. Charting the Data
2.4. Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results
3. Results
3.1. Publication Years and Study Design Characteristics
3.2. Study Subjects
3.3. Pharmaceutical Care Services and Community-Based Setting
3.4. IOM Recommendations and Gap Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Quiñones, A.R.; O’Neil, M.; Saha, S.; Freeman, M.; Henry, S.R.; Kansagara, D. Interventions to Improve Minority Health Care and Reduce Racial and Ethnic Disparities; VA Evidence-Based Synthesis Program Reports; Department of Veterans Affairs: Washington, DC, USA, 2011. Available online: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK82564/ (accessed on 7 February 2022).
- Bailey, Z.D.; Krieger, N.; Agénor, M.; Graves, J.; Linos, N.; Bassett, M.T. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. Lancet 2017, 389, 1453–1463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anderson, N.B.; Bulatao, R.A.; Cohen, B.; National Research Council (US) Panel on Race, Ethnicity, and Health in Later Life. Race/Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, and Health; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2004. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK25526/ (accessed on 1 October 2020).
- Maina, I.W.; Belton, T.D.; Ginzberg, S.; Singh, A.; Johnson, T.J. A decade of studying implicit racial/ethnic bias in healthcare providers using the implicit association test. Soc. Sci. Med. 2018, 199, 219–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meints, S.M.; Cortes, A.; Morais, C.A.; Edwards, R.R. Racial and ethnic differences in the experience and treatment of noncancer pain. Pain Manag. 2019, 9, 317–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Waisel, D.B. Vulnerable populations in healthcare. Curr. Opin. Anaesthesiol. 2013, 26, 186–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wheeler, S.M.; Bryant, A.S. Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health and Health Care. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am. 2017, 44, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perry, M.J.; Arrington, S.; Freisthler, M.S.; Ibe, I.N.; McCray, N.L.; Neumann, L.M.; Tajanlangit, P.; Trejo Rosas, B.M. Pervasive structural racism in environmental epidemiology. Environ. Health 2021, 20, 119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Institute of Medicine. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nelson, A. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 2002, 94, 666–668. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2018 National Healthcare Quality and Disparities Report|Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Available online: https://www.ahrq.gov/research/findings/nhqrdr/nhqdr18/index.html (accessed on 3 November 2022).
- Blumenthal, D.; Fowler, E.J.; Abrams, M.; Collins, S.R. COVID-19—Implications for the Health Care System. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 383, 1483–1488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carroll, A.E. The Unsung Role of the Pharmacist in Patient Health. 2019. Available online: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/28/upshot/pharmacists-drugs-health-unsung-role.html (accessed on 3 November 2022).
- Hughes, T.D.; Roller, J. An opportunity to impact public health. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 2022, 62, 645–646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO Consultative Group on the Role of the Pharmacist in the Health Care System (3rd: 1997: Vancouver, Canada) & World Health Organization. Division of Drug Management and Policies. The Role of the Pharmacist in the Health Care System: Preparing the Future Pharmacist: Curricular Development: Report of a Third WHO Consultative Group on the Role of the Pharmacist, Vancouver, Canada, 27–29 August 1997. Art. No. WHO/PHARM/97/599. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/63817 (accessed on 21 April 2021).
- CDC. How Pharmacists Can Improve Our Nation’s Health. 2018. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/grand-rounds/pp/2014/20141021-pharmacist-role.html (accessed on 21 April 2021).
- Munn, Z.; Peters, M.D.J.; Stern, C.; Tufanaru, C.; McArthur, A.; Aromataris, E. Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 2018, 18, 143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, M.J.; McKenzie, J.E.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.A.; Brennan, S.E.; et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021, 372, n71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mays, N.; Pope, C.; Popay, J. Systematically reviewing qualitative and quantitative evidence to inform management and policy-making in the health field. J. Health Serv. Res. Policy 2005, 10, 6–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Robinson, K.A.; Akinyede, O.; Dutta, T.; Sawin, V.I.; Li, T.; Spencer, M.R.; Turkelson, C.M.; Weston, C. Framework for Determining Research Gaps During Systematic Review: Evaluation; Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality: Rockville, MD, USA, 2013. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK126702/ (accessed on 28 April 2022).
- O’Leary, B.C.; Woodcock, P.; Kaiser, M.J.; Pullin, A.S. Evidence maps and evidence gaps: Evidence review mapping as a method for collating and appraising evidence reviews to inform research and policy. Environ. Evid. 2017, 6, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bennett, M.; Goode, J.-V.R. Recognition of community-based pharmacist practitioners: Essential health care providers. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 2016, 56, 580–583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hughes, T.D.; Hahn, F.; Roller, J. Interventions to Reduce Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Pharmacy|CRD42022307405. PROSPERO 2022. Available online: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42022307405 (accessed on 10 May 2023).
- Glick, S.B.; Clarke, A.R.; Blanchard, A.; Whitaker, A.K. Cervical Cancer Screening, Diagnosis and Treatment Interventions for Racial and Ethnic Minorities: A Systematic Review. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2012, 27, 1016–1032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Halalau, A.; Sonmez, M.; Uddin, A.; Karabon, P.; Scherzer, Z.; Keeney, S. Efficacy of a pharmacist-managed diabetes clinic in high-risk diabetes patients, a randomized controlled trial—‘Pharm-MD. BMC Endocr. Disord. 2022, 22, 69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, H.; Ryu, K.; Sohn, Y.; Kim, J.; Suh, G.Y.; Kim, E. Impact on Patient Outcomes of Pharmacist Participation in Multidisciplinary Critical Care Teams: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Crit. Care Med. 2019, 47, 1243–1250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruiz-Ramos, J.; Hernández, M.H.; Juanes-Borrego, A.M.; Milà, R.; Mangues-Bafalluy, M.A.; Mestres, C. The Impact of Pharmaceutical Care in Multidisciplinary Teams on Health Outcomes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 2021, 22, 2518–2526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kerelos, T.; Gangoo-Dookhan, T. The Impact of Pharmacists Engaged in Collaborative Practice Agreements in the United States. J. Pharm. Pract. 2022, 34, 27–35, 8971900221116684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marupuru, S.; Roether, A.; Guimond, A.J.; Stanley, C.; Pesqueira, T.; Axon, D.R. A Systematic Review of Clinical Outcomes from Pharmacist Provided Medication Therapy Management (MTM) among Patients with Diabetes, Hypertension, or Dyslipidemia. Healthcare 2022, 10, 1207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elliott, J.P.; Harrison, C.; Konopka, C.; Lunney, P.; Skoner, D.; Gentile, D. Pharmacist-led screening program for an inner-city pediatric population. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 2015, 55, 413–418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Isaacs, D.; Riley, A.C.; Prasad-Reddy, L.; Castner, R.; Fields, H.; Harper-Brown, D.; Hussein, S.; Johnson, C.L.; Mangum, T.; Srivastava, S. Jazzin’ Healthy: Interdisciplinary Health Outreach Events Focused on Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. J. Racial Ethn. Health Disparities 2017, 4, 223–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lee, J.; McKennett, M.; Rodriguez, X.; Smith, S. Implementation and Evaluation of a Recurring Interdisciplinary Community Health Fair in a Remote U.S.-Mexico Border Community. J. Immigr. Minor. Health 2019, 21, 136–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Devraj, R.; Young, H.N. Pharmacy language assistance resources and their association with pharmacists’ self-efficacy in communicating with Spanish-speaking patients. Res. Social Adm. Pharm. 2017, 13, 123–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feichtl, M.M.; Clauson, K.A.; Alkhateeb, F.M.; Jamass, D.S.; Polen, H.H. Community pharmacists’ use of language-access services in the United States. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 2011, 51, 368–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weiss, L.; Gany, F.; Rosenfeld, P.; Carrasquillo, O.; Sharif, I.; Behar, E.; Ambizas, E.; Patel, P.; Schwartz, L.; Mangione, R. Access to multilingual medication instructions at New York City pharmacies. J. Urban Health 2007, 84, 742–754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bradshaw, M.; Tomany-Korman, S.; Flores, G. Language Barriers to Prescriptions for Patients With Limited English Proficiency: A Survey of Pharmacies. Pediatrics 2007, 120, e225–e235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dilworth, T.J.; Mott, D.; Young, H. Pharmacists’ communication with Spanish-speaking patients: A review of the literature to establish an agenda for future research. Res. Soc. Adm. Pharm. 2009, 5, 108–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bailey, S.C.; Pandit, A.U.; Curtis, L.; Wolf, M.S. Availability of Spanish prescription labels: A multi-state pharmacy survey. Med. Care 2009, 47, 707–710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Melendez, P. More Spanish Speakers in U.S. Than Spain, Report Finds|CNN. Available online: https://www.cnn.com/2015/07/01/us/spanish-speakers-united-states-spain (accessed on 1 December 2022).
- USAGov. Learn about Life in the U.S. Available online: https://www.usa.gov/life-in-the-us (accessed on 1 December 2022).
- Chen, J.; Mullins, C.D.; Novak, P.; Thomas, S.B. Personalized Strategies to Activate and Empower Patients in Health Care and Reduce Health Disparities. Health Educ. Behav. 2016, 43, 25–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rick, R.; Hoye, R.E.; Thron, R.W.; Kumar, V. Marketplace Clinics Complementing Diabetes Care for Urban Residing American Indians. J. Prim. Care Community Health 2017, 8, 198–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Oyetayo, O.O.; James, C.; Martinez, A.; Roberson, K.; Talbert, R.L. The Hispanic Diabetes Management Program: Impact of community pharmacists on clinical outcomes. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 2011, 51, 623–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shiyanbola, O.O.; Kaiser, B.L.; Thomas, G.R.; Tarfa, A. Preliminary engagement of a patient advisory board of African American community members with type 2 diabetes in a peer-led medication adherence intervention. Res. Involv. Engagem. 2021, 7, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- National Institute of Health. Role of Community Health Workers. Available online: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/healthdisp/role-of-community-health-workers.htm (accessed on 10 May 2023).
- Wheat, L.; Roane, T.E.; Connelly, A.; Zeigler, M.; Wallace, J.; Kim, J.H.; Segal, R. Using a pharmacist-community health worker collaboration to address medication adherence barriers. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 2020, 60, 1009–1014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharp, L.K.; Tilton, J.J.; Touchette, D.R.; Xia, Y.; Mihailescu, D.; Berbaum, M.L.; Gerber, B.S. Community Health Workers Supporting Clinical Pharmacists in Diabetes Management: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Pharmacotherapy 2018, 38, 58–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Victor, R.G.; Blyler, C.A.; Li, N.; Lynch, K.; Moy, N.B.; Rashid, M. Sustainability of Blood Pressure Reduction in Black Barbershops. Circulation 2019, 139, 10–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gerber, B.S.; Cano, A.I.; Caceres, M.L.; Smith, D.E.; Wilken, L.A.; Michaud, J.B.; Ruggiero, L.A.; Sharp, L.K. A pharmacist and health promoter team to improve medication adherence among Latinos with diabetes. Ann. Pharmacother. 2010, 44, 70–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Astier, A. For an evidence-based pharmacy. Ann. Pharm. Fr. 2012, 70, 179–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grol, R.; Grimshaw, J. From best evidence to best practice: Effective implementation of change in patients’ care. Lancet 2003, 362, 1225–1230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Toklu, H.Z. Promoting evidence-based practice in pharmacies. Integr. Pharm. Res. Pract. 2015, 4, 127–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abu Farha, R.; Alefishat, E.; Suyagh, M.; Elayeh, E.; Mayyas, A. Evidence-based medicine use in pharmacy practice: A cross-sectional survey. J. Eval. Clin. Pract. 2014, 20, 786–792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Johnson, M.; Jastrzab, R.; Tate, J.; Johnson, K.; Hall-Lipsy, E.; Martin, R.; Taylor, A.M.; Warholak, T. Evaluation of an Academic-Community Partnership to Implement MTM Services in Rural Communities to Improve Pharmaceutical Care for Patients with Diabetes and/or Hypertension. J. Manag. Care Spec. Pharm. 2018, 24, 132–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Greenwood, B.C. Introduction: Pharmacy Reimbursement. JMCP 2020, 26, 702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harrington, A.; Malone, D.; Doucette, W.; Vaffis, S.; Bhattacharjee, S.; Chan, C.; Warholak, T. A conceptual framework for evaluation of community pharmacy pay-for-performance programs. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 2021, 61, 804–812. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Recommendation | Summary |
---|---|
5–6 | Promote the consistency and equity of care through the use of evidence-based guidelines. |
5–7 | Structure payment systems to ensure an adequate supply of services to minority patients and limit provider incentives that may promote disparities. |
5–8 | Enhance patient-provided communication and trust by providing financial incentives for practices that reduce barriers and encourage evidence-based practice. |
5–9 | Support the use of interpretation services where community need exists. |
5–10 | Support the use of community health workers. |
5–11 | Implement multidisciplinary treatment and preventive care teams. |
5–12 | Implement patient education programs to increase patients’ knowledge of how to best access care and participate in treatment decisions |
Author, Year | Target Population * | Targeted Intervention | Pharmaceutical Service Type |
---|---|---|---|
Anderegg MD, Gums TH, et al., 2016 | African American Hispanic | MTM visits | Medication Optimization |
Blake SC, McMorris K, et al., 2010 | African American Caucasian ** | Health communication training for pharmacists | Language/Literacy |
Caballero J, Souffrant G, et al., 2008 | Hispanic | Pharmacists provide psychiatric services | Medication Optimization |
Carrillo M, Sias J, et al., 2018 | Hispanic, Spanish speakers | Expanded and enhanced diabetes health education by an interprofessional team | Patient Education or Counseling |
Carter BL, Coffey CS, et al., 2015 | African American Hispanic | MTM visits | Medication Optimization |
Collins B, Bronson H, et al., 2018 | Non-Hispanic Black Non-Hispanic White ** Hispanic of any race | HIV testing program | Point of Care Testing |
Congdon, H.B., Dowling, et al., 2013 | Hispanic | MTM visits | Medication Optimization |
Elliott JP, Harrison C, et al., 2015 | Black, Non-Hispanic White, Non-Hispanic | Pharmacist and student pharmacist directed pediatric health screenings | Point of Care Testing |
Enfinger F, Campbell K, et al., 2009 | African Americans Caucasians ** Hispanic | Pharmacy team consultations during regular physician visits | Medication Optimization |
Gazmararian J, Jacobson KL, et al., 2010 | African American White ** | Health communication training for pharmacists | Language/Literacy |
Geiger R, Steinert J, et al., 2018 | American Indian/Alaska Natives | Pharmacist conducted chart reviews of HCV patients | Medication Optimization |
Gerber BS, Cano AI, et al., 2010 | Latino (Hispanic) | Use of bilingual health promoter | Language/Literacy |
Isaacs D, Riley AC, et al., 2017 | African American | Interdisciplinary health fairs and community health outreach events | Point of Care Testing Patient Education or Counseling Immunizations |
Jameson JP and Baty JP, 2010 | Non-white | Disease control by a pharmacist | Medication Optimization |
Kirwin JL, Cunningham RJ, et al., 2010 | White ** Black Hispanic Asian Unknown | Pharmacist delivered, primary care, physician-focused intervention | Medication Optimization |
Lam AY and Chung Y, 2008 | Multiethnic Asian | Pharmacist-conducted on-site influenza vaccination service | Immunizations |
Lee J, McKennett M, et al., 2019 | Hispanic or Latino | Interdisciplinary community health fair | Immunizations |
Martin SL, Williams E, et al., 2015 | American Indians/Alaskan Natives | Interprofessional diabetes clinic | Medication Optimization |
Matthews PH, Darbisi C, et al., 2009. | Latino | Touch-screen information kiosks with online access as a tool for providing culturally and linguistically relevant diabetic information | Language/Literacy |
Meyerson BE, Carter G, et al., 2016 | African American | Voucher outreach program for HIV home testing at three pharmacies | Point of Care Testing |
Moreno G, Tarn DM, et al., 2009. | Latino | Access to non-English language pharmacy service | Language/Literacy |
Muzyk, AJ., Muzyk, TL, et al., 2004. | Hispanic African American Asian or Pacific Islander | Language-assistance services | Language/Literacy |
Navarrete, JP, Padilla, ME, et al., 2014 | Hispanic | Pharmacist-operated HPV vaccine program | Immunizations |
Ndefo, UA, Davis, PN, et al., 2019 | African American | Home visits by pharmacists | Medication Optimization |
Odegard PS, Lam A, et al., 2004 | Asian, whose native language was not English | Oral and written asthma education | Language/Literacy |
Owsley C, McGwin G Jr, et al., 2015 | African American Hispanic Haitian Cuban American | Telemedicine screening | Telemedicine |
Oyetayo OO, James C, et al., 2011 | Hispanic | Diabetes counseling, education, and monitoring every 3 months by pharmacists | Patient Education or Counseling |
Rick R, Hoye RE, et al., 2017 | American Indian | Motivational interviewing and diabetes self-management education | Patient Education or Counseling |
Sansgiry, SS., Chanda S, et al., 2007. | Hispanic | Non-English language pharmacy service | Language/Literacy |
Sharif I, Lo S, 2006 | Spanish-speakers | Non-English language pharmacy service | Language/Literacy |
Sharp LK; Tilton JJ, et al., 2018 | African American Hispanic | CHW support in addition to clinical pharmacist support | Medication Optimization |
Shireman TI, Svarstad BL, 2016. | Black | Novel tools for improving adherence | Medication Optimization |
Shiyanbola OO; Kaiser BL, et al., 2021 | Black/African American | Pharmacist-led educational program on diabetes | Patient Education or Counseling |
Sisson EM; Dixon DL; et al., 2016 | African American White ** Asian Hispanic Other | Pharmacists provided medication management. | Medication Optimization |
Snella KA; Canales AE; et al., 2006 | African American Hispanic | Pharmacist-led diabetes, HTN, and dyslipidemia screening | Point of Care Testing |
Soller RW, Chan, P, et al., 2012 | Spanish-speaking | MTM provided by pharmacists | Language/Literacy Medication Optimization |
Svarstad, BL, Kotchen, JM, et al., 2013 | Black | Novel tools for improving adherence | Medication Optimization |
Tao LS; Hart P; et al., 2003 | African American Hispanic/Latino | Pharmacist led education | Patient Education or Counseling |
Valencia, V, Padilla, ME, 2015. | Hispanic | Education sessions led by community pharmacists | Patient Education or Counseling |
Victor RG; Blyler CA, 2018 | Non-Hispanic Black | Barbers promoted follow-up with pharmacists | Medication Optimization |
Victor RG; Lynch K, et al., 2018 | Black | Barbers promoted follow-up with pharmacists | Medication Optimization |
Wheat L; Roane TE, et al., | Black Native American Caucasian | Collaboration between pharmacists and CHWs in identifying and addressing barriers to medication adherence and improving health outcomes for patients diagnosed with hypertension with or without diabetes | Medication Optimization |
Institute of Medicine Recommendations on Health Disparities | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Health System Interventions | Patient Education and Empowerment | ||||||
5–6 | 5–7 | 5–8 | 5–9 | 5–10 | 5–11 | 5–12 | |
Anderegg et al., 2016 | |||||||
Blake SC, et al., 2010 | |||||||
Caballero J, 2008 | |||||||
Carrillo et al., 2018 | |||||||
Carter et al., 2015 | |||||||
Collins et al., 2018 | |||||||
Congdon et al., 2013 | |||||||
Elliott et al., 2015 | |||||||
Enfinger et al., 2009 | |||||||
Gazmararian J, 2010 | |||||||
Geiger et al., 2018 | |||||||
Gerber et al., 2010 | |||||||
Isaacs et al., 2017 | |||||||
Jameson JP and Baty JP, 2010 | |||||||
Kirwin JL, 2010 | |||||||
Lam et al., 2008 | |||||||
Lee et al., 2019 | |||||||
Martin et al., 2015 | |||||||
Matthews et al., 2009 | |||||||
Meyerson et al., 2016 | |||||||
Moreno et al., 2009 | |||||||
Muzyk et al., 2004 | |||||||
Navarrete et al., 2014 | |||||||
Ndefo et al., 2019 | |||||||
Odegard PS, et al., 2004 | |||||||
Owsley et al., 2015 | |||||||
Oyetayo et al., 2011 | |||||||
Rick et al., 2017 | |||||||
Sansgiry et al., 2007 | |||||||
Sharif et al., 2006 | |||||||
Sharp et al., 2018 | |||||||
Shireman & Svarstad, 2016 | |||||||
Shiyanbola et al., 2021 | |||||||
Sisson et al., 2016 | |||||||
Snella et al., 2006 | |||||||
Soller et al., 2012 | |||||||
Svarstad et al., 2013 | |||||||
Tao et al., 2003 | |||||||
Valencia et al., 2015 | |||||||
Victor et al., 2018 | |||||||
Victor et al., 2019 | |||||||
Wheat et al., 2020 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Hughes, T.D.; Roller, J.S.; Hahn, F.; Ferreri, S.P. Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Community-Based Pharmacies: A Scoping Review. Pharmacy 2023, 11, 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy11030093
Hughes TD, Roller JS, Hahn F, Ferreri SP. Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Community-Based Pharmacies: A Scoping Review. Pharmacy. 2023; 11(3):93. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy11030093
Chicago/Turabian StyleHughes, Tamera D., Jessica S. Roller, Faustina Hahn, and Stefanie P. Ferreri. 2023. "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Community-Based Pharmacies: A Scoping Review" Pharmacy 11, no. 3: 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy11030093