Tundra Nenets: A Heritage Language in Its Own Land? Linguistic Identity and Language Loss
Abstract
:1. Introduction
“In Siberia most young people are still fluent in the language. On the European side, very few children learn it; young people tend to prefer Russian […] and most speakers are middle-aged or older (Salminen 2007). Some young people, all adults, a few to half of children speak Nenets. Positive attitudes […].”(Eberhard et al. 2024 via Salminen on language use)
2. Setting the Stage
3. Tundra Nenets and Its Status
3.1. Fieldwork on Tundra Nenets
3.2. Tundra Nenets Status as an Endangered Language
3.3. Applying Kibrik’s Criteria for Language Endangerment to TN
- (a)
- The size of the ethnic group and the number of speakers in that group. Burkova (2016) reports growing numbers of the Tundra Nenets ethnic group with 32,190 in 1989, 39,302 in 2002 and 42,640 in 2010 (Burkova 2016: 316). However, the number of those with mastery of the native language is receding. While in 1989 approximately 78% spoke Tundra Nenets, the number decreased to 68% in 2010 and to only 44% in 2010. In absolute numbers, approximately 27,000 were speaking TN as a first or second language in 2002, while only 18,597 are reported to speak the language in 2010 (Burkova 2016: 317–18). The Russian legislation attests to the status of the Nenets as an indigenous people2. Though, as already mentioned, Nenets is the strongest of all the Samoyedic languages, and though it enjoys the status of an indigenous language, it is endangered and experiences a constant decline.
- (b)
- The age groups of speakers. There is a difference in this respect between the European and the Siberian sides—in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Region, many young people are still fluent in the language, while, sadly, on the European side, e.g., in the NAO, very few children learn it, even while it is taught at schools, albeit only as an elective. According to Salminen (1998), most speakers on the European side are middle aged or older. During my work in Naryan-Mar and the settlement Krasnoye, I was only able to find proficient middle aged and elderly speakers. The young speakers I worked with in Saint Petersburg’s Herzen University were all from the YaNAO i.e., the Siberian side.
- (c)
- The ethnic character of marriages. Of the twenty consultants I worked with, five were or are married to Nenets spouses. Six of the consultants did not have a partner or a spouse yet (mostly since they were still students and too young at the time of my fieldwork). Even those married to Nenets spouses did not live monolingually with Nenets as their sole language of communication. Most of them spoke either Russian or used code-mixing and code-switching between Russian and Nenets in home communication. When asked about their family language use, several consultants repeatedly remarked that it was forbidden to speak Nenets during Soviet times. With my consultants, the switch to the more prestigious language can be observed even in marriages of members of the same community. This prohibition was so internalized that it has permeated even the private milieu, i.e., the family and the marital domain. My other consultants were in mixed marriages with either Russians or Komi.
- (d)
- Upbringing of preschool-aged children. In this respect, the location and way of life of my consultants played a huge role. The kids who pursued a nomadic lifestyle growing up in the families of reindeer herders all spoke Nenets and had spoken almost exclusively Nenets until they had reached school age. Those who grew up in urban areas with more contact with Russian were not taught TN, even within their own families, especially during Soviet times when use of the TN language was stigmatized and forbidden. What is particularly striking is that even the most proficient speakers among my consultants, and my primary consultant herself, who is an important advocate for the Tundra Nenets language in the community, did not teach their children their native tongue. When asked the reasons for this, they responded that one was mocked or excluded for speaking Nenets in public and that this would not be advantageous for their children growing up.
- (e)
- Location of the ethnic group. According to Salminen (1998), the TN area has lately been receding on the European side. Because of nuclear experiments since the 1950s, but also because of proximity to central Russia, a longer period of co-existence with Russians nearby, earlier industrial exploration of the territory, more urban centers, etc., the inhabitants on the European side were relocated to urban settlements on the continent, which effectively led to the loss of native language command among the Nenets population. This gloomy picture of the European side can be confirmed by the situation of my consultants during my fieldwork. One of my consultants reclaimed her homelands at Varandey after spending several decades in Naryan-Mar and other parts of NAO. The settlement Varandey was founded in the first half of the 1930s as a settling base for reindeer herders. In the 1990s, she and her family were resettled from “Staryj Varandey” (‘Old Varandey’) which used to be a Nenets settlement. There, Nenets people lived their traditional lifestyle engaged in reindeer herding, fishing, collecting cloudberries, etc. The Russian government subsequently moved the inhabitants to “Novyj Varandey” (‘New Varandey’), apparently because the Barents Sea had begun to flood the lands. As a result, people from Old Varandey were resettled to New Varandey. After losing their homes, many of the inhabitants decided to leave for good in hopes of a better life. Soon after, an oil platform, the “Varandeyskiy terminal”, was built close to Old Varandey. This type of resettlement has happened repeatedly to Russian minorities. Sablin and Savelyeva (2011) write about how the destruction of reindeer pasture and river pollution as a consequence of oil and natural gas production and transportation affects the Nenets people and also the Khantys and Mansis peoples. This makes these regions unsuitable for the traditional activities of the indigenous people. The resettlements lead to a disruption of the original way of life and ultimately to a gradual loss of culture and language. Helimski (1997) calls these “endocentric activities of the colonisers”, which force the native population to move away. This destroys traditional “echological niches”, i.e., the archaic way of life of the minority. Sadly, this amounts to a rather subtle invasion into the lives of the indigenous people, one which gradually but systematically leads to the decline of their traditional culture and language.
- (f)
- Language contacts of the ethnic group. Russian is the most influential presence in terms of language contacts in all Nenets areas. The Russian language and culture are dominant in most spheres of life, in particular in the professional, institutional and educational spheres. Again, this influence is more pervasive on the European than on the Siberian side. Salminen (1998) points out that immigration of the Izhma Komi to the Nenets areas leads to their dominance in economic spheres. Salminen’s “survival forecast” for the Siberian side is much brighter. There, a wide-spread multilingualism has traditionally been favored over the domination of a single language. In the Ob’ area, the indigenous Tundra Nenets and Northern Khanty communities live together with Komi, Tatar and Russian immigrant groups. Tundra Nenets has even been used as a lingua franca in the more eastern areas, gradually supplanting other vernaculars. Nevertheless, the TN language can be seen as compromised, as the pervasiveness and omni-presence of the Russian language is so powerful.
- (g)
- National self-consciousness. Much of the Nenets’s national self-consciousness must have been weakened if not destroyed during the Soviet era. According to Salminen, Russification policies and the massive influx of Russian-speaking colonizers nearly eliminated both the multilingual tradition and the interethnic use of Tundra Nenets, leaving room for the native language only in home communication and as part of the traditional economy based on nomadic reindeer breeding. The deliberate alienation of children from their native language and culture through the Soviet schooling system is also deeply felt among the Siberian Nenets, so that Nenets homes could not avoid Russification. These politics have led to a decline in language use which has also contributed to the destruction of the national sense of identity. The differences in rights and privileges between “titular” ethnicities, i.e., the Russians, on the one hand, and minorities on the other, also leads to a decline in the reputation of the Nenets identity and creates an “artificial hierarchy” (Sablin and Savelyeva 2011). The hierarchy is artificial in the sense that, if the rights between “titular” ethnicities and minorities were distributed in a fair and equal way, this hierarchy would not even exist. Helimski (1997) even goes as far as to say that “exocentric” activities, which are often disguised as a way to raise the social prestige of indigenous minorities, such as “indigenization” of the administrative staff, are in reality aimed deliberately at transforming the native societies and cultural traditions. All of these factors, of course, erode the Nenets national identity and contribute to negative self-identification with one’s own minority culture.
- (h)
- Instruction in the language at school. During Soviet times, Russian was elevated to the status of a “unifying Soviet language” (Pakendorf 2024) which led to the Russification of the education system. Pakendorf also writes about the school reform of 1958, which effectively put an end to the use of languages other than Russian as a language of instruction. Today, TN is used in a very limited manner, i.e., only as an auxiliary tool in preparatory and first grades, and often in cases where there are children in the class who have a poor command of Russian (Burkova 2016). On the Siberian side, even in YaNAO, the Tundra Nenets language is only taught as an elective, with significant cuts made to the number of hours and number of teachers in recent years. This has led to a constant decline in the formal instruction of Nenets at schools, as less and less children are interested in learning the language. Some of my student consultants from Herzen University were studying Nenets to become language teachers in their native language. However, several of them did not pursue the profession back home due to a lack of positions at schools and few opportunities for career advancement. One of my female student consultants founded a nursery for Nenets children back in her tundra to try and teach small children their native culture and language. These initiatives are laudable and important but will hardly have a strong impact on the overall state of the language. In NAO, on the European side, where I also worked with a language teacher of Tundra Nenets as my consultant, recent cuts in the teaching of the language as an elective also do not leave much hope for a better future of formal instruction of the language at schools. With the gradual disappearance of TN from schools, young TN speakers will soon become heritage speakers of the language in their own homelands. TN will then become a language that can only be acquired in the family milieu. It will be hard for these heritage speakers to transmit their language to generations to come.
- (i)
- State language policy. Though the Nenets people nominally live in their regions, such as the NAO or the YaNAO, the Russification of the education system during Soviet times, the establishment of boarding schools and kindergartens where Russian was spoken, the forced relocations, and other factors already mentioned, led to a decline in language use. I want to emphasize the detrimental role of boarding schools, where most Nenets children were sent during Soviet times and where they were forbidden to speak their native language. This was also the experience of the older participants of my fieldwork. Though the constitution and other legal documents are translated into Nenets, what is the use if fewer and fewer Nenets people can understand or speak the language? As a whole, the language policies of the Soviet Union and of the current Russian government have not contributed to the preservation and revitalization of TN and other minority languages. Resettlements due to the installation of oil or hydropower stations have triggered a decline and further endangerment of the minority languages. Neseine (2024) summarizes this as follows: “It is so strange for me that these companies [Russian gas and oil companies], on the one hand, destroy the conditions in which the people’s lives are possible, and on the other hand, sponsor the programs of restoring and reviving what they are destroying.” This seems a rather subtle and hypocritical tactic, one which cannot be easily discerned and understood, but which contributes to the decline of the Tundra Nenets culture and language.
4. Materials and Methods: Personal Story
4.1. The Ethnographic Method
4.2. A Case Study: The Hard Route to Education of a Nenets Girl During Soviet Times
5. Discussion
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
- Maнь шкoлa интepнaтxaн тoxoдaнaмaзь.—I studied at a boarding school.
- Tикы шкoлaxaнa мaт‘ клacc ёльцeм, нapaнянa eдepӈaм.—I finished six grades at this school; I got sick in the spring.
- Пaдaртyв тa’’ тaнянa пады нepня нин тoxoдaӈгy.—They gave me a paper which said that I could not continue (school).
- Ӈaцeки тoxoдaнвacь xэбтo мaнь xaим, нeбяӈaн xaим.—When the other kids left, I stayed with my mother.
- Tac пo’’ xoйxaнa нeбяӈaн илeм.—For a whole year, I lived in the tundra with my mother.
- Maнь лэв ӈapкapкa нeбяв мaймби.—My mom was happy, since I matured (lit. got taller).
- “Ӈянa caвaнё”: Xoйxaнa xaин!”—“How good that you stayed in the tundra!”
- “Xoйxaнa иляӈгyн cит xoйпa митам”.—“You are going to live in the tundra and I will get you married.”
- Maнь тикeнa вaдaмдa нaмдбa‘н cит xaйпa митaм.—I heard the words then that I will be married.
- Иб ядэpӈгa мaм нянa’’ вэвaнё’’: Xáян epимдaм”.—In my mind I thought that this was really bad: I am going to get stuck in the tundra.
- Иxнян мaм: эpёнянa ӈацeки” тoxoдaнвaнзь ханта.—In my mind I thought: In autumn, the children will go back to school.
- Maнь xaняxaвa’’ тoxoдaнвaнзь xэбa’’н тapa.—I have to leave and go somewhere to study.
- Cянaкo нeб xoм.—I went to a friend of mine.
- Hяндa мaм: тoxoдaнвaн’’ нинxapвa?—I said to my friend: “Do you want to study?”
- Пыдa мa: xaня xaнтaни?—She said: “Where will we go?”
- Maзён мaм: “Caлexapдaн xэбцyнь.”—I respond: “Let’s maybe go to Salekhard.”
- “Maнь Caлexapдaнa мeдикӈe тoxoдaм, xибяpи caвyмдaмдaӈэ тoxoдaм.”—“In Salekhard, I will study to become a medic and will learn to treat people.”
- “Пыдap ӈгaни’’ xyня’’ xaнтaндa’’?”—“And where will you go to?”
- “Maнь тexникyмaн xaнтaм.”—“I will go to technical school.”
- Tи мaни’’ мapт xaянь.—And so we left for the town.
- Mapт тoнь, мань шкoлaxaн диpeктopт‘ xaям.—After our arrival in the town [most probably the town where NC’s boarding school was], we went to the director.
- Пыдa мa’ н‘ив: „ӈaмгэ?”.—He said to me: “What’s the matter?”
- “Maнь тoхoданвaзь Caлexapдaн‘ xэван xapвам.”—“I just want to study in Salekhard.”
- “Baлкaдa тaбльм’’ (cи’’ив клace ӈиӈгa).”—“I only don’t have my transcript (There are no 7 grades).”
- Maт‘ клacc си‘вимдей клaccдa пeля.—I finished six classes and half of the seventh.
- Cи’’ив клacc ӈэбтa тapa, мaнь янгy.—I need seven classes, but don’t have them.
- Maнь aвнaндa пилибт‘ caвaвнa тoxoдaнсeтым.—I actually always studied well.
- Teт тa caмлянг ӈecьты.—I had 4 s and 5 s as grades. [with 5 being the best grade in the Russian school system and 1 being the worst]
- Maнэц тapa жypнaл тюxyӈa.—The director had to look it up, he opened the journal with the records.
- “Эйя мaнэць тapa! Hянэвнa caвaвнa тoxoдaнвэн.”—„All right, I have to look it up! In fact, you studied well.”
- Toxoлкoдaв ӈямды.—My teacher was sitting there.
- Пыдa мa: “Taбeль тaмдa cepтa xaни.”—She said: “Let’s issue her a transcript.”
- Taд тикexeд xэвaнзь мэнecь.—After this, we were planning to leave [for Salekhard].”
- Kвapтиpaxaнa илeнь xaбeниxaнa.—We lived in a flat of a Russian woman.
- Пapaxoд нeдeляxaнa ӈoпoй лэвa xaн’’ӈгa.—The steamboat only left town once a week.
- Mapт ядэpмaзь xэcьтынь.—We went to the town to take a walk.
- Cyббoтaм ӈaтeнь.—We were waiting for Saturday.
- Ӈaмгэ‘ pинь пaтepaнa xaвcятынь.—We left our things in the flat.
- Taнянa eсянь’’ xaянь’’.—We left our money there.
- Пэвcюмб ӈямгэpинь мaӈэ’’ ӈaнь, ecянь яӈгyвы’’. Талевыдo.—In the evening, we checked our things, the money was not there. It was stolen.
- Hяxaн мaм’’ тeдa’’ xыpкaнь ӈэгyнь.—I asked my friend what we should do now.
- Пыдa мa: “Пyня’’ мякaнь xэxэнь.”—She answered: “Go back home.”
- Maнь гaзeтaм‘ Hapьянa Bындep тaм.—I brought the newspaper Naryana Vynder.
- Cанатoрий шкoлa xэвxaнa пи пилeмбaдa’’ мaнзapa.—Close to the sanatorium school, there are woodworkers.
- Пям пилемби’’ oнтaбидo.—They are chopping and stacking the wood.
- Taня xэxэнь мaзpaвacь.—We were going to go and work there.
- Пям oнтмбa тapa.—One has to chop the wood.
- Taня’’ xaянь, лyцa’’ пиcиӈгa.—We went there, the Russians laughed.
- Maни’’ м: “Aтгэ тápa?”—They are asking: “What do you want?”
- Лyцa’’ ёльцe пиcиӈгa.—The Russians laughed very much.
- Apкaдь нидиӈгa, caць тыpaбэдь, xaнцep мaзpaвyди’’.—“Such petite and very thin girls, how are you going to work?”
- “Пям пэць я’’aмгyди’’.“—“You won’t be able to chop wood.”
- Maнь мaм: “Лядпэй пи oнaтaмбгyнь.”—I respond: “We will stack the chopped wood.”
- Аpкaтaдo мa: “Сид’’ ди нивa’’ маэӈгy.’’ , тикиxэнa ныx‘ тapa.”—The supervisor said: „I won’t hire you, male power is needed here.”
- Xaянь’’, мaзьями яӈгy.—We left with no work.
- Hяxaн мaм: “Пyня’’ xэxэнь, пoчтaн тюxoнь.”—I said: “Let’s go back to the post office.”
- Пoчтaxaнa гaзeтaм мэм.—At the post office, I took another newspaper.
- Taнянa пaды: Kaчьгopтxaнa eвaкo ӈaцeки xapaд тaнe.—The following was written there: In Kachgort, there is an orphanage.
- Eвaкo ӈaцeки xapaдxaнa гaзeтaхaнa oбъявлeния тaни.—There was an announcement in the newspaper about this orphanage.
- Пилeбэй пи ӈoнaтacь тapa.—Chopped wood had to be stacked.
- Cидя xибяpи тapa. Taня xэxэнь.—They needed two people for the job. We went there.
- Ӈaцeки xapaдaн тэвынь, пикyнa xaбeни xaлaтaнa ядapӈгa.—When we arrived at the orphanage, a Russian woman was walking around the street in a dressing gown.
- Мaнь иxинян мaм: “Teхничкa Зaвхoз ӈэдaки, тaнянa xaeнь.”—I thought in my mind: “It is probably the head housekeeper, let’s go address her.”
- Maнь мaм: “Maзъядaми пюpӈгaнь.”—I said: „We are looking for a job.”
- Гaзeтам мaнэлaбтaм’’, тюкoнa пады: пи ӈгoнэтaмбда тара.—I showed her the newspaper where it was written that there were looking for workers to stack wood.
- Пыдa мa: “Aмгэ мaнзapaвaн xapвaдь?”—She asked: “Why do you want to work?”
- Maнь’’ : “Caлeхapдaн‘ тoxoдaнавaзь xэвaн xapвaнь, ecядaми’’ тapa, ecянь’’ квapтиpaxaнaнь‘ тaлeвы.”—We responded: “We are planning to go to Salekhard to study, but our money was stolen from the flat.”
- Ma’’нив: “Нeдeля’’ пядавa ни та.”—She responded: “The wood will not be delivered for another week.”
- Xэвaдь мэнизь, xaбeни мaнив: “Epвxaн xaнтaм, пыдa xa’’ мэлись.”—We wanted to leave, but the woman said: “I’ll go to my boss and will see what she says.”
- Epвaндa ня’’ cидтэ тapпяхa.—The woman came out together with her boss.
- Cидни xaӈгaxa.—They called us to them.
- Epвaдa мa‘: “Heдeля’’ манзpaгyди’’. Ӈaцeки ӈямгэpи cэдypпaӈгyди.”—The boss said: “You will be working here for a week. You will mend children’s clothes.”
- “Caвaнë, ceдypa пиp’’ ӈгaни.”—“Good, we can sew.”
- Heдeли ямбaн мaзpaни. Xyб xacyю чacaн‘, тoвcьтынь.—We worked for a whole week. We came at nine every morning.
- Cидни‘ xyв ӈoлacьты‘, ялe ӈoлacьты‘, пэвcюмб ӈoлacьты‘.—We were fed in the morning, in the afternoon and in the evening.
- Heдeля вaepaнa, ӈapктa сидни‘ xaӈгa.—The week went by and the boss called us.
- Ma’’нив: “Teдa ecядaмди‘ тaтaм. To’’ ни’’ cидяю‘ cамлянг ceвкoй ня’’мaни.”—She said to us: “I will now give you your money. Each one gets 25 Rubles.”
- Taмaльги пoнa cидяю caмлянг ecя caць ӈoкa.—Back in those days, 25 Rubles was a lot.
- Tи cyббoтaxaнa xaянь. Caлexapдaн xaянь.—That Saturday we left. We left for Salekhard.
- Caлexapдaн тэвынь, тэвмaxaдaнь нявx тexникyмaн xaя, мaнь мeдyчилищен xaян.—When we arrived in Salekhard, my friend headed to the technical college, while I went to the medical college.
- Директoрт xaям. Maм: “Tюкoнa тoxoдaнвaн xapвaм. Meдичкaм ӈэвaн xapвaм.”—I went to the director and said: “I want to study here. I want to be a medic.”
- “Tюкoxoнa т‘eт‘ экзaмeн‘ мипа тapa. Пыдар сидя экзаменaн‘ oпoздаян.”—Here, you have to pass four exams. You are late for two of the exams.”
- “Tики экзаменaд‘ мить я’’амгуд. Ӈадебянда cит нива маэӈгу.”—“You won’t be able to pass these exams. This is why I cannot accept you.”
- Ихинян мaм: “Xypкaвaм ӈэбцум?”—I replied: “Well, what can I do now?”
- Texникyмaн хаям. Hяв тexникyмaн тoxoданвась мэвэдo, иле нигдамда ми’’мы.—I went to the technical college. My friend had been accepted there, they gave her accommodation as well.
- Maнь директoрт xаям. Директoр мa‘нив: “Cит тoxoданвась маэгувa.”—I went to the director. The director told me: “We will accept you to study here.”
- Пoдгoтoвительнoе oтделениян xaям.—I joined the preparatory program.
- DoBeS-programme: http://dobes.mpi.nl (accessed on 6 July 2024)
- The Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON): https://raipon.info (accessed on 7 August 2024)
- Database NorthEuraLex: http://northeuralex.org (accessed on 13 March 2024)
- NAO newspaper Naryana Vynder: https://nvinder.ru (accessed on 19 July 2024)
- Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project: https://www.wlrp.org (accessed on 23 October 2024)
- Mohegan Language Program: https://web.archive.org/web/20100424001255/http://www.moheganlanguage.com/ (accessed on 7 November 2024)
- Information and Resources on Tundra Nenets: https://minlang.iling-ran.ru/lang/neneckiy-yazyk (accessed on 23 October 2024)
- Social media sites with TN groups: https://drugvokrug.ru/ and https://vk.ru/ (VKontakte), YouTube channel “Ethnographic expedition Real people”: https://youtube.com/channel/UC0qXBbQObzxsi1Sw-1-O8aA?si=JjoqDcJClF5Yo2i1 (accessed on 23 October 2024)
1 | For clarification, I distinguish the two dialects of Nenets: the dialect of Tundra Nenets and the dialect of Forest Nenets. Within the Tundra Nenets dialect, there are different subdialects (Rus. ‘govor’) which I am describing here. |
2 | In Russia, only languages with numbers lower than 50,000 are granted the status of an indigenous language. The criteria for inclusion in the group of indigenous people in Russia are small population size, specificities of the traditional culture, and a traditional lifestyle of nomadic or semi-nomadic reindeer herding, hunting, and fishing (Severnaja Enciklopedija 2004: 421). |
3 | During Soviet times, a кoлхoз (/kolkhoz/) was a collective farm. |
4 | The city of Salekhard is located in the Yamalo–Nenets Autonomous Okrug. This is approximately 700 km away by air from Naryan-Mar, which would become the starting point of the trip for both girls. |
5 | As it is common to pay consultants for fieldwork just as if they were participants in an experiment in Germany, I wanted to uphold this and reimbursed my Nenets consultants with the hourly rate of those times. |
6 | Kiezdeutsch is a variety of German which is spoken primarily by young people in urban areas like Berlin. A high percentage of the youth speaking Kiezdeutsch are multilingual and have an immigration background. It is regarded to be a multiethnic language. In 2006, the term was used in an essay by Heike Wiese and subsequently became established. |
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Berezovskaya, P. Tundra Nenets: A Heritage Language in Its Own Land? Linguistic Identity and Language Loss. Languages 2024, 9, 348. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9110348
Berezovskaya P. Tundra Nenets: A Heritage Language in Its Own Land? Linguistic Identity and Language Loss. Languages. 2024; 9(11):348. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9110348
Chicago/Turabian StyleBerezovskaya, Polina. 2024. "Tundra Nenets: A Heritage Language in Its Own Land? Linguistic Identity and Language Loss" Languages 9, no. 11: 348. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9110348
APA StyleBerezovskaya, P. (2024). Tundra Nenets: A Heritage Language in Its Own Land? Linguistic Identity and Language Loss. Languages, 9(11), 348. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9110348