Introduction to the Special Issue Linguistic Practices in Heritage Language Acquisition

Linguistic practices in heritage language (HL) acquisition refer to the ways in which language is used, managed, and passed on within families, communities, or institutions to help children, adolescents, and young adults learn and maintain it. These practices include a combination of both formal and informal strategies for language development and socialization. Parents and family members consistently using HL in everyday communication to help the next generations develop receptive and productive language skills, as they hear and practice the language regularly in natural contexts. Some parents would like their children to speak their heritage language but do not know how to achieve this goal and do not turn to professionals for help. On the other hand, there are parents establishing specific language policies within the family, such as using the HL at home, requiring children to speak it with relatives, or even setting rules for when to use the majority language (e.g., in school settings and public places). These decisions are part of the broader linguistic practices that guide language acquisition (Guardado, 2018; Wiley, 2007). Children are gradually introduced to language through social interactions while parents and caregivers model language use, correct errors, and encourage children to participate in conversations. These socialization practices reflect cultural values, traditions, and norms associated with the language (Caloi & Torregrossa, 2021). By participating in cultural events, celebrations, and traditions, minority language speakers, expats, and immigrants are exposed to the language in meaningful contexts, which aids in language retention and emotional connection to the community.

HL acquisition involves organized efforts, such as language classes, tutoring, or participation in cultural programs. These are more structured opportunities to learn the language in a formal setting, often focusing on reading, writing, and grammar (Bohnacker, 2022). Many multilingual persons engage in code-switching (alternating between languages within a conversation or sentence), code-mixing (blending elements of different languages), and mediation (explaining or communicating ideas, concepts, or information from one language to another in a way that makes sense to the audience), also known as translanguaging (e.g., Cenoz & Gorter, 2021; Otcu-Grillman & Borjian, 2022). While this may not always seem as an ideal approach, it is a common practice in multilingual environments and can influence both the HL and majority language (Blackledge & Creese, 2008; Pavlenko, 2007). The use of media in the HL—such as books, music, TV shows, and social media—plays a crucial role in exposing HL speakers to the language outside the home environment, providing additional input and context, and helping to reinforce vocabulary and grammar. For many HL learners, regular interaction with other speakers of the same language—such as encounters in community groups, family visits, or events—reinforces language skills, offers opportunities for authentic language use, and keeps a connection to their cultural identity (Johnsen, 2021).

This Special Issue is poised to address gaps in the existing literature on HL acquisition, as identified by Bauckus and Kresin (2018), Montrul (2015), Montrul and Polinsky (2021), and Polinsky (2018). By concentrating on specific situations, it offers a more detailed understanding of how HLs are acquired and maintained, presenting empirical studies and case analyses to provide concrete data and examples (cf. Brehmer & Mehlhorn, 2018; Mehlhorn & Brehmer, 2018). Furthermore, by examining the sociolinguistic dynamics influencing HL acquisition, it will deepen our comprehension of how social factors shape language practices within HL communities, complementing broader sociolinguistic research (cf. Kresin, 2017; Peterson & Sippola, 2022; Wiley et al., 2014).

Additionally, this Special Issue contributes to the study of linguistic variation and change by focusing on explicit features within HLs (Aalberse et al., 2019) and complementing broader studies of language change across communities. Through the exploration of effective pedagogical approaches, it provides practical insights for educators and language professionals working with HL learners, bridging the gap between research and classroom practice (Carreira & Kagan, 2018). By investigating the impact of policies on HLs, it offers recommendations for more inclusive and effective language policies (Kagan et al., 2021; Wiese et al., 2022), which support linguistic diversity. Moreover, by exploring the role of HLs in shaping cultural and linguistic identities, the contributors propose a deeper understanding of how language practices intersect with broader identity formation processes (Beaudrie & Loza, 2023). They also investigate the role of technology in HL acquisition, providing insights into how digital resources can be effectively used to support self-identification. This Special Issue sets out to explore the multifaceted aspects of individuals’ acquisition, usage, and preservation of HLs across diverse sociolinguistic contexts, aiming to understand the complex interplay between linguistic practices and HL development in both formal and informal settings. Encompassing a broad array of topics within the realm of HL acquisition and usage, this Special Issue covers studies on sociolinguistic dynamics, language variation and change, language maintenance and shift, bilingualism and multilingualism, identity and HL use, and language policies and planning.

The study by Grasz presents the findings from an interview study on HL acquisition, transmission, and maintenance of German among German-speaking migrants in northern Finland. It focuses on the role of the German language in families, the influence of regional German varieties, and how children are socialized into the language through both informal and formal means. The thematic analysis reveals varied beliefs and practices regarding HL maintenance, with common challenges such as limited HL instruction and few opportunities for contact with other German-speaking families. Despite these challenges, many families make deliberate decisions to raise their children bilingually, with strong support for the use of German, a language considered prestigious in Finland. The study also highlights the importance of self-education and community support in bilingual upbringing, as well as the limited official support from schools and institutions in rural areas. Overall, the research emphasizes the need for tailored language education policies in peripheral regions, considering specific needs of multilingual families and broader implications for promoting linguistic and cultural identity.

The paper by Blacher and Brehmer examines how aspects of family language policies (FLPs) affect Russian language proficiency across three generations in Russian-speaking families in Germany, revealing a generational decline—with children showing the lowest levels and greatest variation—and highlighting the positive role of literacy practices and cultural ties in maintaining HL skills. This study confirms many findings from previous research on Russian-speaking families in Germany, particularly the strong loyalty these families show toward Russian as a HL and its central role in family conversations. Heritage speakers born in Germany commonly exhibit language shifts and dual language use, while their proficiency in Russian varies widely. An important observation made by the authors of this study is the role of grandparents as essential contributors to maintaining Russian, emphasizing its emotional value and its importance for connecting with cultural roots rather than professional goals. Future research should examine the broader influence of grandparents in FLP and consider both explicit practices, like HL classes, and implicit practices, such as natural family interactions, ideally through longitudinal and in-situ methods for a more comprehensive understanding.

The article by Meng and Protassova describes the language use and integration experiences of two immigrant families from post-Soviet states in Germany, tracking four generations over nearly 30 years. Immigrants from post-Soviet states in Germany adapt to their new environment through complex language practices and professional integration efforts, with adults prioritizing job retraining while their children focus on immediate cultural assimilation. Over time, language blending occurs as Russian speakers incorporate German words, reflecting cultural immersion but raising concerns about preserving Russian. Russian–Ukrainian Germans from Kazakhstan and Russian–Ukrainian Jews from Russia approach integration differently. Despite early challenges, both groups have found stability in Germany, balancing Russian heritage with German integration and investing in their children’s future. While German has become the primary language outside the home and partly within, Russian remains among second and third generations, with younger generations achieving full integration and maintaining partial proficiency in Russian.

Edygarova emphasizes the personal and societal challenges of preserving the Udmurt language from an autoethnographic perspective, focusing on the emotional and sociolinguistic impacts of raising children in Udmurt while living abroad. The author systematizes the difficulties indigenous language speakers face, such as negative societal attitudes and linguistic trauma from mixed-language use, which can deter language transmission. Supportive personal networks and international Finno–Ugric connections play a vital role in fostering positive attitudes toward indigenous languages, counteracting historically ingrained prejudices. Writing in Udmurt, particularly through blogging, serves as both a therapeutic and empowering tool for reclaiming linguistic pride and developing new expressive styles. Overcoming a linguistic trauma involves sociolinguistic education and collective efforts to address the possible harm of monolingual ideologies, crucial for a decolonial shift in Russian society. Finally, family support is essential in sustaining indigenous language practices despite external challenges.

The paper by Berezovskaya examines the endangered status of Tundra Nenets, a Samoyedic minority language in northern Russia; the author conducted fieldwork from 2014 to 2016 in multiple Russian regions. Tundra Nenets is assessed under language endangerment criteria, considering how identity, ethnicity, and negative attitudes interplay with state politics. The personal narrative of NC, a Tundra Nenets woman, showcases the impact of discrimination on language identity, screening how stigmatization accelerates Tundra Nenets’ decline. This language, now scarcely present in schools or institutions, risks becoming a heritage language in its own territory. Although the situation is critical, language awareness, documentation, and revitalization efforts provide a possible path to preservation. Promoting pride in Tundra Nenets, fostering bilingualism, and advocating for supportive policies are essential, alongside addressing broader societal issues of respect for minorities.

Latvian families in diaspora, especially those in Finland, preserve their language and cultural identity through family strategies, community support, and institutional assistance, as stated in the article by Balodis. Focusing on a Latvian–Lithuanian family, he highlights the importance of home-language policies, such as setting rules for language use at home, and community activities like folk dancing and choirs, in maintaining HL skills. Visits to grandparents and participation in cultural camps further reinforce these efforts, creating a living connection to Latvian culture. Local communities provide spaces for cultural exchange and language use, though accessibility is a challenge for those outside major cities. The Latvian Language Agency and other institutions play a vital role by offering resources, camps, and teacher training to aid in language preservation. The article convincingly shows that family commitment is crucial, serving as the foundation for sustaining the Latvian language and culture across generations. It is particularly effective when woven together with community and institutional support to create a resilient cultural tapestry.

The Circassian language, the HL of a small minority group in Israel, is endangered, prompting the development of targeted maintenance programs. In Israel, the Circassian Maintenance Program is crucial in primary schools, where literacy instruction in Circassian begins in the fifth grade. Schwartz and Shogen explored the role of a Circassian HL teacher, focusing on her agency in engaging students through her attitudes, beliefs, and classroom strategies, using data gathered from classroom observations and interviews. The teacher demonstrated cultural competence and adaptability and provided individualized support, encouraging student autonomy and integrating technology and reflective practices. The findings reveal that HL knowledge is a pillar of community identity, unity, and belonging, while translanguaging practices foster awareness of language structures across Circassian, Hebrew, Arabic, and English. The study underscores the need for schools to leverage students’ multilingual backgrounds, establish supportive language policies, and offer professional development for teachers to create inclusive and effective HL education.

Karinen studied Finnish language and identity among Finnish Americans in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and Northern Minnesota, where Finnish is a postvernacular HL. Using ethnographic methods like participant observation, narrative interviews, and thematic analysis of material culture, this investigation reveals strong pride and attachment to Finnish identity, which shapes belonging and Finnish American identity. However, tensions around pronunciation, such as “sauna”, and Finnish last names reflect competing ideologies of authenticity and purity. Generational changes in terms like “Finlander” highlight evolving attitudes, with nationalistic and purist ideologies influencing how Finnishness is perceived. Despite concerns about the future of Finnish heritage, evidenced by the closure of key institutions, the study shows that younger generations are embracing Finnishness in new ways, suggesting an evolving cultural identity. Future research could expand to other Finnish communities for broader comparisons on how Finnish identity is maintained and adapted across generations.

Aksinovits and Verschik analyze the FLP among Estonian families in Finland, focusing on beliefs surrounding the maintenance of Estonian and the role of Estonian home-language classes offered by municipalities. Using Spolsky’s three-component model of FLP, their analysis explores language beliefs, management, and practices, highlighting caregivers’ emphasis on the importance of Estonian language proficiency for their children’s ethnolinguistic identity. However, a gap is found between these beliefs and actual behavior, as many children do not attend home-language classes due to logistical challenges and dissatisfaction with teaching methods. The study reveals that while caregivers value maintaining Estonian, they struggle to implement this through formal education, with some relying on home activities like reading and watching Estonian-language media. Additionally, the study uncovers a lack of communication between home and school, and challenges observed in home-language class structure and resources, which contribute to the low participation in these classes. The research suggests that more comprehensive support, improved communication, and appropriate teaching materials are needed to align caregivers’ beliefs with effective language management practices.

A special case of the heritage Hebrew in Nordic countries is represented by Bloch, who focused on the perspectives of Hebrew-speaking immigrant parents in Finland. She investigated FLPs and how Hebrew is used within multilingual families, looking at factors influencing parental decisions on Hebrew language transmission. Using a mixed qualitative–quantitative approach and FLP analysis, the research reveals a shift away from Hebrew towards Finnish, with many children showing low proficiency in oral and written Hebrew. Access to Hebrew education was identified as a major challenge, with only a small percentage of children receiving external Hebrew instruction. The survey also uncovered a connection between parents’ birthplace and language choices, with repatriated parents transmitting less Hebrew to their children. The findings highlight the complexities of maintaining heritage Hebrew in Finland, offering insights that could inform language policies and practices for multilingual families worldwide.

Chali and Parapatics turn toward the language policy and practices at an Ethiopian higher education institution, focusing on multilingualism. Their article demonstrates a significant gap between the official language policy, which designates English as the primary medium of instruction, and the multilingual reality in classrooms, where languages such as Afaan Oromoo and Amharic are commonly used. The research reveals that the Ethiopian constitution lacks clear provisions for multilingualism in higher education, suggesting a need for policy adjustments to better accommodate linguistic diversity. Both instructors and students frequently use local languages alongside English in daily interactions, emphasizing the importance of understanding these dynamics. The study argues that Ethiopia’s current monolingual approach to education does not address the complexities of its linguistic landscape and calls for a more adaptive language policy. Overall, the research advocates for a flexible language policy in Ethiopian higher education institutions that acknowledges and integrates the country’s rich multilingualism.

In recent years, Serbian heritage speakers have shown a growing interest in learning Serbian through online platforms, which provide flexibility and individualized lessons tailored to their needs. However, Serbian heritage learners are often taught using the same curricula designed for native speakers, despite having distinct needs and language profiles that would benefit from specialized materials and approaches, including instruction based on the CEFR levels and adapted content focused on enhancing communication skills. To improve Serbian language education for HL learners, Krstić and Stanković propose adjustments to the current curriculum, integrating three instructional models: the communicative model, form-focused instruction, and the integrative model. These models leverage heritage learners’ naturalistic acquisition of Serbian, enhancing their communicative strengths while building literacy and grammatical precision through culturally enriched teaching materials.

To promote the development of HLs in multilingual environments, authorities and families can take several steps. First, they should encourage the consistent use of the HL in various contexts. Second, they can provide a rich language environment by fostering such activities as reading, listening to stories, and engaging with the language through play and creative activities. Third, they may seek out resources and support, such as language classes, exchange groups, or cultural events, to aid language development. Lastly, they could create a positive and supportive learning environment where minority speakers feel encouraged to explore and use the language.

The current research on HL acquisition offers valuable insights into linguistic practices and strategies employed by various communities to maintain and transmit their languages across generations. However, several limitations must be acknowledged. Firstly, the scope of research often focuses on specific HL communities, such as German-speaking migrants in Finland or Russian-speaking families in Germany. This specificity may limit the generalizability of findings to other HL groups or geographic regions, potentially overlooking diverse experiences and challenges faced by different communities.

Methodological constraints also present limitations, as many studies rely heavily on qualitative methods like interviews and thematic analysis. While these approaches provide in-depth insights, they may not capture broader trends or statistically significant data that could enhance the understanding of HL acquisition. Additionally, limited access to comprehensive language resources and institutional support, particularly in rural or peripheral areas, can hinder effective HL maintenance and transmission, presenting a significant barrier for families seeking to preserve their linguistic heritage.

Another limitation lies in the gap between family language policies and institutional support, leading to challenges in implementing effective language management practices. The complex interplay of cultural identity, societal attitudes, and linguistic practices varies widely across different contexts, making it difficult to establish universal strategies for HL acquisition. Furthermore, while technology offers potential benefits for HL acquisition, its effective integration into language learning practices is not thoroughly explored or standardized, leaving room for improvement in leveraging digital resources.

Looking ahead, future research perspectives offer promising avenues to address these limitations and expand the understanding of HL acquisition. Comparative studies across different HL communities and regions could identify common challenges and effective strategies for language maintenance, providing a broader perspective on the issue. Conducting longitudinal research could yield insights into the long-term effects of family language policies and community support on HL proficiency across generations, offering valuable data on language transmission dynamics.

Incorporating quantitative analyses alongside qualitative approaches could enhance the robustness of findings and allow for broader generalizations, providing a more comprehensive understanding of HL acquisition. Research focused on policy development could lead to the creation and testing of inclusive language policies that address the needs of multilingual families and promote HL preservation in diverse settings. Exploring technological innovations, such as digital resources and online platforms, could lead to the development of innovative educational tools and methods tailored to heritage learners.

Interdisciplinary approaches integrating insights from sociolinguistics, education, and cultural studies could provide a holistic understanding of HL acquisition and its impact on identity formation, offering a multifaceted perspective on language practices. Investigating the role of community engagement and grassroots movements in supporting HL education and cultural identity could offer valuable models for other minority language groups, highlighting the importance of collective efforts in language preservation. Overall, these future research perspectives aim to deepen the understanding of HL acquisition and contribute to the development of effective strategies for sustaining linguistic diversity and cultural identity across generations.