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Volume 14
Issue 23
10.3390/plants14233571
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Physiological and Molecular Responses of Seed Germination to Irrigating-Sowing in Drought-Stressed Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica L.)

by
Boyu Lu
1,†,
Shide Dan
1,†,
Siyu Yan
1,
Rongxue Wang
1,
Jiaxing Li
1,
Jianhong Ren
2,3,
Shuqi Dong
1,3,
Yinyuan Wen
1,3,
Liguang Zhang
1,3 and
Xiangyang Yuan
1,3,*
1
College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
2
College of Life Sciences, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
3
Special Orphan Crops Research Center of the Loess Plateau, MARA, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Plants 2025, 14(23), 3571; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233571 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 26 October 2025 / Revised: 14 November 2025 / Accepted: 21 November 2025 / Published: 22 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) is an important crop in northern China’s arid and semi-arid regions. Frequent spring droughts and limited irrigation facilities often cause poor seed germination due to insufficient soil moisture, threatening food security. The irrigation-sowing technique, which creates a localized moist microenvironment around seeds, effectively addresses this issue. However, this technique has been poorly studied, and its effects on foxtail millet seed germination remain unclear. To address this, field experiments were conducted using a two-factor split-plot design, with three drought levels and five irrigation gradients. The results showed that irrigation-sowing increased soil moisture, promoted root–shoot growth coordination, and improved germination characteristics. Transcriptome analysis of seeds under moderate drought compared the optimal irrigation treatment (13.5 m3·hm−2) with the non-irrigated control (0 m3·hm−2), identifying 2169 differentially expressed genes. Seeds receiving irrigation exhibited higher transcript abundance in pathways related to carbohydrate metabolism, energy production, secondary metabolism, and hormone signaling. Physiological measurements further showed increased α/β-amylase activity, while starch, sucrose, and cellulose content decreased. Glycolytic enzyme activity was enhanced, and ATP content increased by 125%. Additionally, phenylpropanoid metabolism was promoted, and proanthocyanidin accumulation increased by 11.5%. Hormone analysis showed that the contents of IAA and GA increased as germination progressed by 29.09% and 54.70%, respectively, while ABA content decreased. Overall, irrigation-sowing serves as an upstream moisture signal that reshapes metabolic and hormonal states associated with improved germination performance.
Keywords: foxtail millet; drought; irrigating-sowing; seed germination; transcriptome analysis; carbohydrate metabolism; secondary metabolism; hormone signaling foxtail millet; drought; irrigating-sowing; seed germination; transcriptome analysis; carbohydrate metabolism; secondary metabolism; hormone signaling

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Lu, B.; Dan, S.; Yan, S.; Wang, R.; Li, J.; Ren, J.; Dong, S.; Wen, Y.; Zhang, L.; Yuan, X. Physiological and Molecular Responses of Seed Germination to Irrigating-Sowing in Drought-Stressed Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica L.). Plants 2025, 14, 3571. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233571

AMA Style

Lu B, Dan S, Yan S, Wang R, Li J, Ren J, Dong S, Wen Y, Zhang L, Yuan X. Physiological and Molecular Responses of Seed Germination to Irrigating-Sowing in Drought-Stressed Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica L.). Plants. 2025; 14(23):3571. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233571

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lu, Boyu, Shide Dan, Siyu Yan, Rongxue Wang, Jiaxing Li, Jianhong Ren, Shuqi Dong, Yinyuan Wen, Liguang Zhang, and Xiangyang Yuan. 2025. "Physiological and Molecular Responses of Seed Germination to Irrigating-Sowing in Drought-Stressed Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica L.)" Plants 14, no. 23: 3571. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233571

APA Style

Lu, B., Dan, S., Yan, S., Wang, R., Li, J., Ren, J., Dong, S., Wen, Y., Zhang, L., & Yuan, X. (2025). Physiological and Molecular Responses of Seed Germination to Irrigating-Sowing in Drought-Stressed Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica L.). Plants, 14(23), 3571. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14233571

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