Next Article in Journal
Identification of Auxin, Cytokinin, Transcription Factors, and Other Zygotic Embryogenesis-Related Genes in Persea americana: A Transcriptomic-Based Study
Previous Article in Journal
WRKY61 Negatively Regulates Aluminum Resistance by Inhibiting the Expression of ALMT1 in Arabidopsis thaliana
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Plants
Volume 14
Issue 21
10.3390/plants14213287
plants-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Chemical Composition and Selective Bioactivities of Piper platylobum Sodiro Essential Oil

by
Jairo Jaime-Carvajal
1,2,*,
Nicole Pesántez
3,
José Ballesteros
2,
Vladimir Morocho
4 and
Omar Malagón
5
1
Programa de Doctorado en Química, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Calle Paris s/n y Praga, Loja 110107, Ecuador
2
Grupo de Investigación en Aplicaciones Biotecnológicas, GIAB, Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, UPS, Carrera de Bioquímica y Farmacia, Campus María Auxiliadora, Kilómetro 19.5, Vía a La Costa, Guayaquil 090901, Ecuador
3
Carrera de Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja 110107, Ecuador
4
Independent Researcher, Loja 110102, Ecuador
5
Departamento de Química, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja 110107, Ecuador
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants 2025, 14(21), 3287; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213287
Submission received: 18 September 2025 / Revised: 18 October 2025 / Accepted: 23 October 2025 / Published: 27 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Essential oils from the genus Piper are recognized for their chemical diversity and biological potential, yet Piper platylobum has been scarcely investigated. This study aimed to characterize the chemical composition of the leaf essential oil of P. platylobum and evaluate its antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticholinesterase activities. The oil was obtained by steam distillation and analyzed through gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography equipped with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID), leading to the identification of 35 compounds that accounted for 91.11% of the volatile fraction. Dillapiole (42.0%) was the principal constituent, followed by α-(E)-bergamotene (5.69%), (E)-caryophyllene (5.01%), and (E)-isocroweacin (3.75%). Biological assays revealed selective antimicrobial activity, with inhibition observed only against Enterococcus faecium (MIC = 1000 µg/mL), while no effect was detected against other bacterial or fungal strains tested. Antioxidant evaluation showed moderate activity in the ABTS assay (SC50 = 335.71 ± 1.43 µg/mL; TEAC = 45.85 ± 1.68 µM Trolox/g EO), but no activity in the DPPH assay. The essential oil also displayed moderate inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (IC50 = 76.86 ± 1.00 µg/mL), suggesting a potential role in neuroprotective applications. This study constitutes the first report on the chemical composition and biological activities of P. platylabum essential oil, highlighting its potential as a novel source of bioactive compounds.

1. Introduction

Since ancient times, medicinal plants have played a fundamental role in human health, serving as the empirical basis for numerous traditional medical systems and as a primary source of pharmacologically active compounds [1,2]. It is estimated that over 50% of modern drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from natural products, predominantly of plant origin [1,3]. This highlights the strategic importance of biodiversity as a reservoir of bioactive molecules with potential therapeutic and agroindustrial applications [4].
Among plant metabolites, essential oils (EOs) have attracted considerable attention in recent decades. These volatile and complex mixtures, primarily composed of terpenes and phenylpropanoids, are biosynthesized through specific pathways such as the mevalonate and methylerythritol phosphate pathways [5]. Beyond their structural diversity, EOs fulfill critical ecological functions, including defense against herbivores and pathogens, as well as the attraction of pollinators [6]. Their chemical composition varies widely according to genetic, environmental, and technological factors, which directly influence their bioactivity [7].
Numerous studies have demonstrated the pharmacological and agro-industrial potential of EOs, exhibiting antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, and repellent activities [6,8,9]. These properties position EOs as promising natural candidates for the development of novel pharmaceuticals, biopesticides, and food preservatives, particularly in a global context where challenges such as antimicrobial resistance and pesticide contamination demand more sustainable solutions [10,11].
Among botanical families of interest, Piperaceae—and specifically (Figure 1) the genus Piper—stands out due to its chemical richness and biological diversity. This genus comprises over 2000 species, primarily distributed in tropical regions, many of which have documented traditional uses for the treatment of respiratory, digestive, and inflammatory disorders [12,13]. Representative species such as P. nigrum, P. betle, and P. longum are well known for their ethnomedicinal value and bioactive compounds, including piperine, which exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [14,15]. In addition, various Piper species produce essential oils containing terpenes such as α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, and germacrene D, which have been associated with multiple biological activities [15]. Studies on species such as P. aduncum and P. marginatum have demonstrated their efficacy as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and natural pesticidal agents [16,17].
However, P. platylobum Sodiro. has been scarcely investigated, with an almost complete lack of published phytochemical and pharmacological data. Although several Piper species have been investigated, unexplored diversity still contrasts with the genus’s bioactive potential, reinforcing its relevance for scientific exploration and bioprospecting in tropical ecosystems [18]. In this context, the present study aims to characterize the essential oil extracted from the leaves of P. platylobum using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) for qualitative analysis and gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC–FID) for quantitative analysis, and to evaluate its biological potential in activities of relevance for pharmaceutical, food, and agricultural applications [19].

2. Results

2.1. Yield and Chemical Composition

The essential oil yield obtained from dried leaves of P. platylobum was 0.35% (w/w); the analysis by gas chromatography (GC) of the essential oil revealed a complex chemical profile, with the identification and quantification of thirty-five compounds (Table 1). Oxygenated phenylpropanoids accounted for 51.97% of the total, followed by hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes, which constituted 31.54%. Hydrocarbon monoterpenes and oxygenated sesquiterpenes were found in smaller concentrations, at 4.00% and 3.61%, respectively. Together, these results allowed the chemical identification of 91.11% of the total volatile compounds in the essential oil (Figure 2).

2.2. Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil

Based on Table 2, the essential oil extracted from the leaves of P. platylobum showed a targeted and specific antimicrobial activity against the panel of bacterial strains evaluated. The oil did not exhibit any activity against Staphylococcus aureus or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, a notable exception was recorded, a Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of 1000 µg/mL against Enterococcus faecium, which suggests a moderate and specifically targeted inhibition of this strain.

2.3. Antioxidant Capacity

The DPPH assay was employed to assess the antioxidant capacity of P. platylobum essential oil. The results were compared with those obtained for the positive control Trolox (Table 3), which served as a standard reference due to its well-established antioxidant activity. The essential oil of P. platylobum exhibited moderate antioxidant activity, with values markedly lower than those of Trolox. This effect could not be attributed to its principal constituent, dillapiole, suggesting that the observed activity may result from synergistic interactions among different components or from the contribution of minor metabolites.

2.4. Anticholinesterase Activity

The essential oil of P. platylobum demonstrated a moderate inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, with an IC50 of 76.86 ± 1.00 µg/mL. In contrast, the reference inhibitor Donepezil exhibited a markedly higher potency, with an IC50 of 12.40 ± 1.35 µM (Figure 3).

3. Discussion

The essential oil yield obtained from the dried leaves of P. platylabum was relatively low (0.35% w/w). Previous studies have shown that some tropical Piper species can produce higher yields; for example, P. xylosteoides reached 1.8% (dry weight basis) [21]. In contrast, yields reported for other species are closer to those observed in the present work. Essential oils obtained from aerial parts of P. capense, P. guineense and P. umbellatum yielded 0.15%, 0.10%, and 0.13%, respectively, while P. nigrum fruits produced 0.26% [22]. This variation reflects the considerable intra- and interspecific diversity in essential oil production within the genus. Such differences are commonly attributed to geographical distribution, environmental conditions, and the occurrence of distinct chemotypes [23]. Consequently, the relatively low yield of P. platylabum is consistent with values reported for other Piper species and reinforces the importance of chemotypic and ecological factors when evaluating new taxa for essential oil bioprospecting.
The essential oil (EO) of P. platylobum contains more than 35 compounds, some of which are terpenes present at very low concentrations that together represent less than 40% of the essential oil content. The main component of P. platylobum EO is dillapiol (42.0%). Other vital elements of this essential oil include α-(E)-bergamotene (5.69%), (E)-caryophyllene (5.01%), and (E)-isocroweacin (3.75%). It also contains several sesquiterpenes, such as germacrene D, δ-amorphene, α-humulene, and bicyclogermacrene, all present at concentrations above 1%. Studies by Gomes da Camara et al. [24] and Pereira Filho et al. [25] reported dillapiole as the principal constituent of the essential oil from P. aduncum leaves, with relative abundances of 78.40% and 81.9%, respectively. However, contrasting results were reported in P. corcovadense by Fontoura et al. [26], who identified trans-sesquisabinene hydrate (24.91%), trans-caryophyllene (10.75%), β-pinene (5.61%), trans-β-farnesene (5.22%), 14-hydroxycaryophyllene (4.63%), limonene (3.76%), and p-cymene (3.62%) as the main constituents of the essential oil. Likewise, the essential oil of P. rostratum Roxb presented a different chemical profile, with γ-muurolene (14.1%), γ-cadinene (13.2%), allylpyrocatechol diacetate (11.5%), chavicol (8.2%), α-humulene (7.8%), and hydroxychavicol (6.9%) as the most abundant compounds [27]. In the case of P. nigrum, it was dominated by β-caryophyllene (18.64 ± 0.84%), limonene (14.95 ± 0.13%), sabinene (13.19 ± 0.17%), β-pinene (9.71 ± 0.12%), 3-carene (8.56 ± 0.11%), and α-pinene (7.96 ± 0.14%) [28]. These results confirm the remarkable chemical diversity within the genus Piper, where each species displays a unique volatile profile dominated by either sesquiterpenes or monoterpenes. In this context, dillapiole, a naturally occurring polyalkoxybenzene, has been consistently reported to exhibit antimicrobial activity [29]. Moreover, when present at high concentrations in the essential oils of other Piper species, dillapiole is considered one of the principal bioactive constituents contributing to their antimicrobial properties [30].
Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of P. platylobum essential oil revealed selective efficacy, showing activity only against Enterococcus faecium with a MIC of 1000 µg/mL. The oil was not effective against other strains tested, including Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger, and Candida albicans. Compared with related species, this activity appears relatively weak. For instance, P. barbatum essential oil demonstrated a broader antimicrobial spectrum, with strong inhibition (<500 µg/mL) against S. aureus (264 µg/mL), Streptococcus mutans (132 µg/mL), Candida albicans (132 µg/mL), and Candida tropicalis (264 µg/mL) [31]. Similarly, Houng et al. [32] reported that essential oils from leaves and stems of Piper species exhibited values of 16–64 µg/mL against Gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus and B. cereus), showing activities comparable or superior to streptomycin (128–256 µg/mL). These oils also inhibited C. albicans with 128 µg/mL, although they were less effective against Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli and P. aeruginosa. Moreover, ethanolic extracts from Piper spp. have also shown remarkable antimicrobial potential; Alves et al. [33] reported MIC values <100 µg/mL against Salmonella spp. in maceration-derived extracts, while Soxhlet-derived samples exhibited broad inhibition against most microorganisms tested, except P. aeruginosa. Considering these findings, the antimicrobial performance of P. platylobum essential oil appears relatively modest compared with other Piper species. Such variability may be associated with differences in chemical composition, particularly the relative abundance of phenylpropanoids or oxygenated sesquiterpenes, which are often linked to higher antimicrobial potency [34]. Moreover, the biological activity of essential oils is not solely determined by the major component but often results from synergistic or antagonistic interactions among volatile constituents. In the case of P. platylobum, the predominance of dillapiole combined with relatively low levels of oxygenated sesquiterpenes or phenolic compounds—chemical groups often associated with higher antimicrobial potency—may account for the limited activity observed [35].
The AChE inhibitory activity of P. platolobum essential oil is reported for first time, showing a moderate effect with an IC50 value of 76.86 ± 1.00 µg/mL. Rezod et al. [36] found that the essential oil of P. crassipes, predominantly chavibetol (59.8%), exhibited moderate inhibitory effects on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), with IC50 values of 77.2 and 89.2 µg/mL, respectively. Salleh et al. [36] analyzed ten Malaysian Piper species, identifying P. erecticaule as the most potent, with 22.9% AChE inhibition. The essential oil of P. platylobum contains a variety of bioactive compounds that may contribute to acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition. Among the monoterpenes, α-pinene has been reported to exhibit multiple biological activities, including AChE inhibition, antifungal activity, and natural insecticidal properties, and has been used for centuries in the production of flavors and fragrances [37]. Among them, β-caryophyllene is present at high levels and has been reported to possess potential AChE inhibitory activity. Similarly, sesquiterpenes and phenylpropanoids, including caryophyllene oxide, isospathulenol, (+)-spathulenol, β-bisabolene, and asaricin—which predominates in several Piper species—have demonstrated potent inhibition of AChE [38]. These findings support the notion that Piper essential oils, including that of P. platylobum, may serve as a valuable natural source of bioactive compounds with therapeutic potential for Alzheimer’s disease and other central nervous system disorders.
The essential oil of P. platylabum exhibited moderate radical scavenging capacity in chemical assays, with an SC50 value of 335.71 ± 1.43 µg/mL in the ABTS assay and a TEAC value of 45.85 ± 1.68 µM Trolox/g EO, while no activity was detected in the DPPH test. These results indicate a potential chemical antioxidant capacity, but they do not necessarily reflect biological antioxidant activity. Indeed, the DPPH and ABTS assays are based on single electron transfer or hydrogen atom transfer mechanisms that measure the ability of compounds to neutralize synthetic radicals in vitro, rather than in biological systems [39,40]. Similarly, Mata et al. explained that this trend may be due to the fact that the ABTS method is particularly suitable for evaluating lipophilic antioxidants and is therefore more appropriate for assessing the antioxidant potential of essential oils. In contrast, the lack of activity in the DPPH assay may be related to the limited hydrogen-donating capacity of terpenes and their low solubility in methanol, the solvent used in this test [41]. These results are consistent with previous findings for P. ecuadorense, whose essential oils, mainly composed of sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes, also displayed higher activity in the ABTS assay compared to DPPH [42]. Other studies support this idea: P. cubeba oil, for example, was shown to be superior to P. nigrum oil in its antioxidant [43]. Similarly, the essential oil of Piper betle exhibits strong antioxidant activity in the DPPH assay, with radical scavenging values ranging from 72% to 89%, depending on the drying method used [44]. When comparing these findings with other members of the genus, clear differences emerge. P. acutifolium displayed stronger radical-scavenging activity, with IC50 values of 160.12 ± 0.30 µg/mL in the DPPH assay, 138.10 ± 0.06 µg/mL in ABTS, and 450.10 ± 0.05 µg/mL in FRAP [45], suggesting a broader antioxidant potential than that observed for P. platylabum. Moreover, Rodríguez et al. [46] reported even more pronounced antioxidant capacity in the DPPH assay for P. aduncum (30.1 ± 1.8 µg/mL), P. auritum (14.8 ± 0.5 µg/mL), and P. umbellatum (32.3 ± 1.3 µg/mL), values that are substantially lower than those obtained for P. platylabum in the ABTS test. These findings in other Piper species reinforce the notion that environmental and developmental factors can influence the chemical composition and thus bioactivity of P. platylobum. Given that there are no studies addressing how ecological conditions affect P. platylobum essential oil, the results presented in the paper are a unique snapshot of its potential. This highlights the need for further research to explore how geographical location, climate, and plant maturity could alter its chemical profile and, consequently, its therapeutic and ecological properties [44]. Such studies would provide a more complete picture of the species’ potential as a source of bioactive compounds.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Plant Material

The leaves were collected at coordinates 2°07′09.5″S and 79°28′41.0″W (Figure 4), approximately 15 km southwest of the urban center of Milagro city, in Guayas Province. The site corresponds to a disturbed area of seasonal lowland evergreen forest located along the coastal region. This area is part of the Tumbes region of endemism, known for its high biodiversity and unique flora.

4.2. Essential Oil Isolation

The essential oil was extracted from 87.20 g of dried leaves which were dried in an electric dryer (model DY-330H, Lassele, Ansan City, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea) at 35 °C for 48 h; the extraction process was carried out by steam distillation for 150 min. Once obtained, the essential oil was stored in a refrigerator at 4 °C until subsequent chemical and biological analysis, the plant material from was distilled in three repetitions.

4.3. Identification and Quantification of Essential Oil

4.3.1. Qualitative Analysis

For qualitative analysis, a Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA) gas chromatograph (Trace 1310 series model) coupled to a mass spectrometry detector (ISQ 7000 brand) was used. An apolar TR-5MS capillary column with a 5% phenyl (equiv) polysilphenylene-siloxane stationary phase (30 m length × 0.25 mm internal diameter, and a film thickness of 0.25 μm) was used. The injection conditions were a temperature of 230 °C, with a split radius ratio of 1:80. Helium was used as a carrier gas, with a constant flow of 1 mL/min. The initial operating conditions of the oven were 50 °C for 3 min, followed by a ramp of 3 °C/min until reaching 230 °C, maintaining this final temperature for 3 min. The detector used was a single quadrupole mass spectrometer, operating in 0.2 scan mode with a mass range of 40–400 m/z, and temperatures of the transfer line of 250 °C and 230 °C for the ion source.
The components of the essential oil of P. platylobum were identified by comparing their mass spectra with those of reference compounds showing similar Linear Retention Indices (LRIs) reported in the literature [20]. LRIs were calculated according to the method of Van Den Dool and Kratz [41], based on the retention times of a homologous series of n-alkanes (C9–C22, TPH-6RPM, Chem Service) analyzed under the same GC conditions, to increase the reliability of the identification. Data acquisition and processing were managed via the Chromeleon XPS software, version 7.2.10 (Waltham, MA, USA), and mass spectral matching was performed using the NIST 17 MS from the internal chromatogram database. The compound was considered identified if the calculated retention index did not differ by ±25 from the reference values [47].

4.3.2. Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis was performed using gas chromatography coupled with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). The same column and injection conditions were used as those used for gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The relative amounts of the compounds were determined by GC-FID through peak area integration, without applying any correction factors.

4.4. Antimicrobial Activity

Antimicrobial activity was assessed using the antimicrobial potential and the protocol described by Cartuche et al. [48]. The antimicrobial potential and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) were determined using the broth microdilution technique and the double serial dilution system to obtain concentrations of 4000 to 31.25 µg/mL for each of the diluted wells. Gram-positive bacteria (Enterococcus faecium ATCC® 27270, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC® 25923, Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC® 12228) and two Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli (O157:H7) ATCC® 43888, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC® 10145) were selected. Antifungal activity was also evaluated (Aspergillus niger ATCC® 6275, Candida albicans ATCC® 10231). All these microorganisms were reactivated at a standard McFarland scale of 0.5 with an approximate of 1.5 × 108 colony-forming units per milliliter (CFU/mL). Cation-adjusted Mueller–Hinton II (MH II) assay media were used for bacteria, and Sabouraud broth for fungi. Commercial antimicrobial products were used as positive controls: for Gram-positive bacteria, E. faecium, S. aureus, and S. epidermidis, ampicillin solution (1 mg/mL) was used; for Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli and P. aeruginosa, ciprofloxacin (1 mg/mL) was used; finally, amphotericin B (250 µg/mL) was used for the two fungi A. niger and C. albicans.

4.5. Antioxidant Capacity

Antioxidant activity was assessed using the ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging assay, employing the methodology described by Cartuche et al. [48]. The ABTS assay was carried out by mixing ABTS (455 µM) with potassium persulfate (2596 µM) dissolved in 100 mL of ultrapure water, followed by continuous stirring for 12 h. The standard solution was adjusted in methanol to achieve an absorbance of 1.1 ± 0.02, measured at 734 nm using an EPOCH 2 microplate reader (BIOTEK, Winooski, VT, USA). For the DPPH assay, a working solution was prepared using the free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 4.6 mg of DPPH dissolved in 100 mL of methanol. Subsequently, 270 µL of the working solution and 30 µL of the oil sample were placed in the 96-well plate and monitored at 515 nm for 60 min. Finally, Trolox reagent was used as a positive control and methanol as a blank control. These assays were expressed as SC 50 (radical scavenging concentration at 50%); both assays were performed in triplicate to ensure experimental accuracy.

4.6. Cholinesterase Assay

The inhibitory activity was carried out by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and was evaluated with a sample of essential oil of P. platylobum. In vitro evaluation was performed according to the method described by Ellman et al. [49], where the AChE enzyme from Electrophorus electricus (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) was used; briefly, 20 μL of acetylcholine (ATCh) was placed together with 60 μL of PBS buffer pH 7.4, 100 μL of Ellman’s reagent solution in Tris buffer (DNTB) and 20 ul of the analyzed sample, after which it was preincubated for 3 min at 25 °C and then 20 ul of enzyme solution of 0.5 U/mL was added to start the reaction. The reaction was placed in an EPOCH 2 microplate reader, and the released reaction product was monitored at 405 nm for 60 min.
The essential oil was prepared by dissolving 10 μL of oil in 990 μL of MeOH, and from this, eight 2-fold dilutions were made to obtain final concentrations of 8000, 4000, 2000, 1000, 500, 250, 125, and 62.5 μg/mL. Finally, the IC50 value was calculated from the progression curves using GraphPad Prism software (nonlinear regression analysis, PRISM 8.0.1, GraphPad, San Diego, CA, USA), and Donepezil hydrochloride was used as a positive control, with an IC50 value of 12.40 ± 1.35 nM, while MeOH served as a negative control.

5. Conclusions

The essential oil of Piper platylobum was investigated, a species that has received little scientific attention to date. The chemical analysis identified Dillapiole as the main constituent, and the biological assays showed that the oil has a weak but notable antimicrobial effect on Enterococcus faecium and a moderate anticholinesterase activity. The lack of activity in other assays suggests a specific biological profile for this species. This research contributes to the bioprospecting of tropical ecosystems and provides a foundation for future studies to isolate and characterize the bioactive compounds responsible for the observed activities. Further research should focus on fractionating the essential oil to pinpoint the specific molecules responsible for its anticholinesterase and antimicrobial effects, which could lead to the development of new pharmaceuticals or biopesticides.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.J.-C. and J.B.; methodology, N.P. and V.M.; validation, J.J.-C., J.B., O.M. and V.M.; formal analysis, J.J.-C. and V.M.; investigation, J.J.-C., J.B., O.M. and V.M.; data curation, J.J.-C., J.B., N.P. and V.M.; writing—original draft preparation, J.J.-C. and V.M.; writing—review and editing, J.J.-C., N.P., O.M. and V.M.; supervision, J.J.-C. and V.M.; project administration, J.J.-C. and V.M.; funding acquisition, J.J.-C. and O.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

All data presented in this study are available in this article.

Acknowledgments

This research work was supported by the “Universidad Politécnica Salesiana-Ecuador, Sede Guayaquil”, under a project of the “Grupo de Investigación en Aplicaciones de Biotecnología (GIAB)” research group. The authors also express their gratitude to the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL) for supporting this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Newman, D.J.; Cragg, G.M. Natural Products as Sources of New Drugs over the Last 40 Years and Future Perspectives. J. Nat. Prod. 2020, 83, 770–803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Fabricant, D.S.; Farnsworth, N.R. The Value of Plants Used in Traditional Medicine for Drug Discovery. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109 (Suppl. S1), 69–75. [Google Scholar]
  3. Gurib-Fakim, A. Medicinal Plants: Traditions of Yesterday and Drugs of Tomorrow. Mol. Asp. Med. 2006, 27, 1–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Cragg, G.M.; Newman, D.J. Natural Products: A Continuing Source of Novel Drug Leads. Pure Appl. Chem. 2013, 85, 1011–1023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Baser, K.H.C.; Buchbauer, A. Handbook of Essential Oils: Science, Technology, and Applications; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  6. Bakkali, F.; Averbeck, S.; Averbeck, D.; Idaomar, M. Biological effects of essential oils—A Review. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46, 446–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Pichersky, E.; Gershenzon, J. The Formation and Function of Plant Volatiles: Perfumes for Pollination and Defense. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 2002, 5, 237–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Burt, S. Essential oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods—A Review. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2004, 94, 223–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Hzounda Fokou, J.B.; Jazet Dongmo, P.M.; Boyom, F.F. Essential Oil’s Chemical Composition and Pharmacological Properties; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Tacconelli, E.; Carrara, E.; Savoldi, A.; Harbarth, S.; Mendelson, J.; Klugman, D.; Theuretzbacher, U. Discovery, Research, and Development of New Antibiotics: The WHO Priority Pathogens List of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Tuberculosis. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2017, 18, 318–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Regnault-Roger, C.; Vincent, C.; Arnason, J.T. Essential Oils in Insect Control: Low-Risk Products in a High-Stakes World. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2019, 64, 301–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Stevens, W.D. Piperaceae. In Flora de Nicaragua; Missouri Botanical Garden Press: St. Louis, MO, USA, 2001; pp. 1957–1988. [Google Scholar]
  13. Parmar, V.S.; Jain, S.C.; Bisht, K.S.; Jain, R.; Taneja, P.; Jha, A.; Errington, W. Phytochemistry of the Genus Piper. Phytochemistry 1997, 46, 597–673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Butt, M.S.; Sultan, M.T.; Butt, M.S.; Iqbal, J. Piperine: A Valuable Alkaloid from Piper nigrum L. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2013, 53, 1251–1267. [Google Scholar]
  15. Vasconcelos, T.M.; Silveira, J.C.G.; Ferreira, T.C.; Leite, L.I.L.; Martins, I.S.; Carvalho, J.C. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of the Essential Oil from Piper marginatum Jacq. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2017, 27, 724–731. [Google Scholar]
  16. Santos, V.L.F.; Blank, A.F.; de Jesus, B.M.; de Medeiros, K.A.F.; da Costa, J.P.; Lima, M.S. Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of the Essential Oil from Piper aduncum L. Leaves. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2014, 24, 555–560. [Google Scholar]
  17. Costa, S.M.O.; Andrade, R.A.; Morais, S.M.; Oliveira, E.F.; Medeiros, I.M.; Almeida, R.N. Chemical Composition and Central Nervous System Depressant Activity of Essential Oil from Piper marginatum Jacq. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2012, 22, 863–868. [Google Scholar]
  18. Xiang, C.-P.; Shi, Y.-N.; Liu, F.-F.; Li, H.-Z.; Zhang, Y.-J.; Yang, C.-R.; Xu, M. A Survey of the Chemical Compounds of Piper spp. (Piperaceae) and Their Biological Activities. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2016, 11, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Mondello, L.; Tranchida, P.Q.; Dugo, P.; Dugo, G. Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry in the Analysis of Essential Oils. J. Chromatogr. A 2005, 1067, 269–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Adams, R.P. Identification of Essential Oil Components by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry, 4th ed.; Allured Publishing Corporation: Carol Stream, IL, USA, 2007; ISBN 10-1932633219. [Google Scholar]
  21. Dognini, J.; Meneghetti, E.K.; Teske, M.N.; Begnini, I.M.; Rebelo, R.A.; Dalmarco, E.M.; Verdi, M.; de Gasper, A.L. Antibacterial Activity of High Safrole Contain Essential Oils from Piper xylosteoides (Kunth) Steudel. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2012, 24, 241–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Martins, A.; Salgueiro, L.; Vila, R.; Tomi, F.; Cañigueral, S.; Casanova, J.; da Cunha, A.P.; Adzet, T. Essential Oils from Four Piper Species. Phytochemistry 1998, 49, 2019–2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. da Silva, J.K.; da Trindade, R.; Alves, N.S.; Figueiredo, P.L.; Maia, J.G.S.; Setzer, W.N. Essential Oils from Neotropical Piper Species and Their Biological Activities. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 2571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Gomes da Camara, C.A.; do Nascimento, A.F.; Monteiro, V.B.; de Moraes, M.M. Larvicidal, ovicidal, and antifeedant activities of essential oils and constituents against Spodoptera frugiperda. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot. 2022, 55, 851–873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Filho, P.; Alves, A.; do Vale, V.F.; de Oliveira Monteiro, C.M.; Barrozo, M.M.; Stanton, M.A.; Yamaguchi, L.F.; Kato, M.J.; Araújo, R.N. Effects of Piper aduncum (Piperales: Piperaceae) Essential Oil and Its Main Component Dillapiole on Detoxifying Enzymes and Acetylcholinesterase Activity of Amblyomma sculptum (Acari: Ixodidae). Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 5420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Fontoura, B.H.; Perin, E.C.; Buratto, A.P.; Schreiner, J.F.; Cavalcante, K.M.; Teixeira, S.D.; Manica, D.; Narzetti, R.A.; da Silva, G.B.; Bagatini, M.D.; et al. Chemical Profile and Biological Properties of the Piper corcovadense C.DC. Essential Oil. Saudi Pharm. J. 2024, 32, 101993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Ramin, N.M.; Salleh, W.M.N.H.W.; Salihu, A.S.; Ab Ghani, N.; Agosto, N.J.; Sungthong, B.; Abed, S.A. Exploring the Chemical Composition and Bioactivities of the Essential Oil of Piper rostratum Roxb. Nat. Prod. Res. 2025, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Bagheri, H.; Manap, M.Y.B.A.; Solati, Z. Antioxidant activity of Piper nigrum L. essential oil extracted by supercritical CO2 extraction and hydro-distillation. Talanta 2014, 121, 220–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Rojas-Martínez, R.; Arrieta, J.; Cruz-Antonio, L.; Arrieta-Baez, D.; Velázquez-Méndez, A.M.; Sánchez-Mendoza, M.E. Dillapiole, Isolated from Peperomia pellucida, Shows Gastroprotector Activity against Ethanol-Induced Gastric Lesions in Wistar Rats. Molecules 2013, 18, 11327–11337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Schepetkin, I.A.; Özek, G.; Özek, T.; Kirpotina, L.N.; Klein, R.A.; Khlebnikov, A.I.; Quinn, M.T. Composition and Biological Activity of the Essential Oils from Wild Horsemint, Yarrow, and Yampah from Subalpine Meadows in Southwestern. Montana: Immunomodulatory Activity of Dillapiole. Plants 2023, 12, 2643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Noriega, P.; Ballesteros, J.; De la Cruz, A.; Veloz, T. Chemical Composition and Preliminary Antimicrobial Activity of the Hydroxylated Sesquiterpenes in the Essential Oil from Piper barbatum Kunth Leaves. Plants 2020, 9, 211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Huong, L.T.; Dai, D.N.; Van Chinh, H.; Le, T.V.A.; Hung, N.H.; Son, N.T.; Tai, T.A. Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils of Piper minutistigmum. Chem. Nat. Compd. 2024, 60, 559–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Alves, F.S.; Cruz, J.N.; de Farias Ramos, I.N.; do Nascimento Brandão, D.L.; Queiroz, R.N.; da Silva, G.V.; da Silva, G.V.; Dolabela, M.F.; da Costa, M.L.; Khayat, A.S.; et al. Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity and Cytotoxicity Effects of Extracts of Piper nigrum L. and Piperine. Separations 2023, 10, 21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Kwiatkowski, P.; Pruss, A.; Wojciuk, B.; Dołęgowska, B.; Wajs-Bonikowska, A.; Sienkiewicz, M.; Mężyńska, M.; Łopusiewicz, Ł. The Influence of Essential Oil Compounds on Antibacterial Activity of Mupirocin-Susceptible and Induced Low-Level Mupirocin-Resistant MRSA Strains. Molecules 2019, 24, 3105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Fratini, F.; Pecorini, C.; Resci, I.; Copelotti, E.; Nocera, F.P.; Najar, B.; Mancini, S. Evaluation of the Synergistic Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils and Cecropin A Natural Peptide on Gram-Negative Bacteria. Animals 2025, 15, 282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Rezod, U.J.; Salleh, W.M.N.H.W.; Salihu, A.S.; Ghani, N.A. Chemical Composition, Anticholinesterase Activity, and Molecular Docking Studies of Piper crassipes Korth. ex Miq. Essential Oil. Nat. Prod. Res. 2025, 39, 4513–4519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Salleh, W.M.N.H.W.; Hashim, N.A.; Ahmad, F.; Yen, K.H. Anticholinesterase and Antityrosinase Activities of Ten Piper Species from Malaysia. Adv. Pharm. Bull. 2014, 4 (Suppl. S2), 527–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Xiang, C.; Han, J.; Li, X.; Li, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, L.; Qu, Y.; Hao, C.; Li, H.; Yang, C.; et al. Chemical Composition and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activity of Essential Oils from Piper Species. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2017, 65, 3702–3710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Prior, R.L.; Wu, X.; Schaich, K. Standardized Methods for the Determination of Antioxidant Capacity and Phenolics in Foods and Dietary Supplements. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 4290–4302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Apak, R.; Özyürek, M.; Güçlü, K.; Çapanoğlu, E. Antioxidant Activity/Capacity Measurement. 1. Classification, Physicochemical Principles, Mechanisms, and Electron Transfer (ET)-Based Assays. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2016, 64, 997–1027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Mata, A.; Proença, C.; Ferreira, A.; Serralheiro, M.; Nogueira, J.; Araújo, M. Antioxidant and antiacetylcholinesterase activities of five plants used as Portuguese food spices. Food Chem. 2006, 103, 778–786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Valarezo, E.; Flores-Maza, P.; Cartuche, L.; Ojeda-Riascos, S.; Ramírez, J. Phytochemical profile, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of essential oil extracted from Ecuadorian species Piper ecuadorense Sodiro. Nat. Prod. Res. 2021, 35, 6014–6019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Andriana, Y.; Xuan, T.D.; Quy, T.N.; Tran, H.-D.; Le, Q.-T. Biological Activities and Chemical Constituents of Essential Oils from Piper cubeba Bojer and Piper nigrum L. Molecules 2019, 24, 1876. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Ramarao, K.D.R.; Razali, Z.; Somasundram, C.; Kunasekaran, W.; Jin, T.L. Effects of Drying Methods on the Antioxidant Properties of Piper betle Leaves. Molecules 2024, 29, 1762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Cuadros-Siguas, C.F.; Herrera-Calderon, O.; Batiha, G.E.-S.; Almohmadi, N.H.; Aljarba, N.H.; Apesteguia-Infantes, J.A.; Loyola-Gonzales, E.; Tataje-Napuri, F.E.; Kong-Chirinos, J.F.; Almeida-Galindo, J.S.; et al. Volatile Components, Antioxidant and Phytotoxic Activity of the Essential Oil of Piper acutifolium Ruiz & Pav. from Peru. Molecules 2023, 28, 3348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Rodriguez, E.J.; Saucedo-Hernández, Y.; Vander Heyden, Y.; Simó-Alfonso, E.F.; Ramis-Ramos, G.; Lerma-García, M.J.; Monteagudo, U.; Bravo, L.; Medinilla, M.; de Armas, Y.; et al. Chemical analysis and antioxidant activity of the essential oils of three Piperaceae species growing in the central region of Cuba. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2013, 8, 1325–1328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Figueroa, J.G.; Vargas, L.F. Evaluation of Sde, Sfe and Spme/Cg-Ms for Extraction and Determination of Aroma Compounds from Vilcabamba-Ecuadorian Roasted Coffee. Quim. Nova 2016, 25, 1–8. [Google Scholar]
  48. Cartuche, L.; Vallejo, C.; Castillo, E.; Cumbicus, N.; Morocho, V. Chemical Profiling of Drimys granadensis (Winteraceae) Essential Oil, and Their Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Anticholinesterase Properties. Plants 2024, 13, 1806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Ellman, G.; Courtney, D.; Andres, V.; Featherstone, R. A new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1961, 7, 88–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Plants 14 03287 g001
Figure 1. P. platylobum. collected in Ecuador. Photo provided by one of the authors (J.J.C).
Figure 1. P. platylobum. collected in Ecuador. Photo provided by one of the authors (J.J.C).
Plants 14 03287 g001
Plants 14 03287 g002
Figure 2. Total ion chromatogram of P. platylobum leaf essential oil.
Figure 2. Total ion chromatogram of P. platylobum leaf essential oil.
Plants 14 03287 g002
Plants 14 03287 g003
Figure 3. AChE inhibitory response from the P. platylobum essential oil expressed as IC50, calculated from non-linear regression curve data fitting analysis.
Figure 3. AChE inhibitory response from the P. platylobum essential oil expressed as IC50, calculated from non-linear regression curve data fitting analysis.
Plants 14 03287 g003
Plants 14 03287 g004
Figure 4. Geographic map showing the sampling site for the collection of P. platylobum in the tropical dry forest.
Figure 4. Geographic map showing the sampling site for the collection of P. platylobum in the tropical dry forest.
Plants 14 03287 g004
Table 1. Chemical composition of P. platylobum essential oil from Ecuador.
Table 1. Chemical composition of P. platylobum essential oil from Ecuador.
No.RTCompoundLRI
Calculate		LRI
Literature		Media ± SDMF
17.94α-Pinene 9329320.95 ± 0.05C10H16
29.83β-Pinene9799740.93 ± 0.05C10H16
311.60α-Terpinene 101910140.41 ± 0.02C10H16
413.55γ-Terpinene106210541.14 ± 0.07C10H16
514.82Terpinolene108910860.57 ± 0.04C10H16
627.77α-Ylangene 137013740.45 ± 0.00C15H24
728.08α-Copaene 137713742.33 ± 0.09C15H24
828.43β-Bourbonene 138513870.36 ± 0.09C15H24
930.02(E)-Caryophyllene142214175.01 ± 3.86C15H24
1030.53α-(E)-Bergamotene 143414325.69 ± 1.18C15H24
1131.59α-Humulene 146014521.52 ± 1.22C15H24
1231.75allo-Aromadendrene 146414581.09 ± 0.91C15H24
1332.09Croweacin147214573.01 ± 1.92C11H12O3
1432.40γ-Muurolene 147914781.97 ± 1.51C15H24
1532.67Germacrene D148614802.50 ± 1.15C15H24
1633.02α-Amorphene 149414832.66 ± 0.86C15H24
1733.17n-Pentadecane14981500C15H32
1833.29Bicyclogermacrene150115000.93 ± 0.10C15H24
1933.41α-Muurolene 150415003.74 ± 0.10C15H24
2033.59(E,E)-α-Farnesene150815050.19 ± 0.13C15H24
2133.85Asaricin151514950.41 ± 0.18C11H12O3
2234.01γ-Cadinene 151915130.71 ± 0.10C15H24
2334.19δ-Amorphene 152415111.41 ± 0.12C15H24
2434.90(E)-Isocroweacin154115533.75 ± 0.09C11H12O3
2535.27α-Calacorene 155115440.34 ± 0.05C15H20
2635.89Elemicin156615550.72 ± 0.02C12H16O3
2736.01(E)-Nerolidol156915610.57 ± 0.02C15H26O
2836.82Spathulenol159015770.77 ± 0.10C15H24O
2936.95Caryophyllene oxide159315821.30 ± 0.23C15H24O
3037.47Guaiol160716000.41 ± 0.07C15H26O
3138.71Dillapiole1640162042.00 ± 1.53C12H14O4
3239.86α-Cadinol 167016520.55 ± 0.35C15H26O
3340.25Elemol acetate168116800.47 ± 0.11C17H28O2
3440.53Cadalene168816750.64 ± 0.29C15H18
3540.89(E)-Asarone169816751.62 ± 0.10C12H16O3
Hydrocarbon monoterpenes (HM)4.00
Hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes (HS)31.54
Oxygenated sesquiterpenes (OS) 3.61
Other compounds 51.97
Total identified 91.11
LRIcal: Calculated linear retention index; LRIlit: Linear retention index from Adams [20]; SD: mean standard deviation over three determinations; MF: molecular formula.
Table 2. Antibacterial and antifungal capacity of P. platylobum essential oil.
Table 2. Antibacterial and antifungal capacity of P. platylobum essential oil.
MicroorganismsP. platylobum essential Oil †Antimicrobial Agent (Positive Control) †
Cocci Bacteria Ampicillin (1 mg/mL)
Enterococcus faecium ATCC® 272701000<0.3906
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC® 25923Non active<0.3906
Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC® 12228Non active<0.3906
Rod-shaped Bacteria Ciprofloxacin (1 mg/mL)
Escherichia coli (O157:H7) ATCC® 43888Non active1.5625
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC® 10145Non active<0.3906
Yeasts and sporulated fungi Amphotericin B (250 µg/mL)
Aspergillus niger ATCC® 6275Non active<0.098
Candida albicans ATTC® 10231Non active<0.098
† MIC values are given as µg/mL.
Table 3. Half scavenging capacity (SC50) of P. platylobum essential oil.
Table 3. Half scavenging capacity (SC50) of P. platylobum essential oil.
Essential oilABTSDPPHTEAC
 SC50 ± SD (µg/mL—µM *)µM Trolox/g EO
P. platylobum335.71 ± 1.43-45.85 ± 1.68
Trolox *29.09 ± 1.0535.54 ± 1.04-
* Trolox was used as a positive reference, and its values are given in µM. (-) Not active at the highest dose tested (8000 µg/mL).
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Jaime-Carvajal, J.; Pesántez, N.; Ballesteros, J.; Morocho, V.; Malagón, O. Chemical Composition and Selective Bioactivities of Piper platylobum Sodiro Essential Oil. Plants 2025, 14, 3287. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213287

AMA Style

Jaime-Carvajal J, Pesántez N, Ballesteros J, Morocho V, Malagón O. Chemical Composition and Selective Bioactivities of Piper platylobum Sodiro Essential Oil. Plants. 2025; 14(21):3287. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213287

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jaime-Carvajal, Jairo, Nicole Pesántez, José Ballesteros, Vladimir Morocho, and Omar Malagón. 2025. "Chemical Composition and Selective Bioactivities of Piper platylobum Sodiro Essential Oil" Plants 14, no. 21: 3287. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213287

APA Style

Jaime-Carvajal, J., Pesántez, N., Ballesteros, J., Morocho, V., & Malagón, O. (2025). Chemical Composition and Selective Bioactivities of Piper platylobum Sodiro Essential Oil. Plants, 14(21), 3287. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14213287

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop