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Review

Adventitious Root Formation in Cuttings: Insights from Arabidopsis and Prospects for Woody Plants

by
Peipei Liu
1,2,†,
Shili Zhang
1,2,†,
Xinying Wang
1,2,
Yuxuan Du
1,2,
Qizhouhong He
1,2,
Yingying Zhang
1,2,
Lisha Shen
1,2,
Hongfei Hu
3,
Guifang Zhang
1,2,* and
Xiaojuan Li
1,2,*
1
State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
2
Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding in Forest Trees and Ornamental Plants, Ministry of Education, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
3
Nanchang Innovation Institute, Peking University, Nanchang 330096, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Biomolecules 2025, 15(8), 1089; https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15081089
Submission received: 29 May 2025 / Revised: 24 July 2025 / Accepted: 25 July 2025 / Published: 28 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Biological Factors)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

Cutting propagation is a commonly employed technology for vegetative reproduction in agricultural, forestry, and horticultural practice. The success of cutting propagation depends on adventitious root (AR) formation—a process whereby roots regenerate from stem cuttings or leaf cuttings. In this review, we summarize the distinct stages of cutting-induced AR formation and highlight the pivotal roles of plant hormones and age in this process. Jasmonic acid (JA) acts as a master trigger for promoting AR formation, while auxin serves as the core regulator, driving AR formation. Furthermore, plant age is a crucial factor determining the regenerative competence of cuttings. Notably, age and JA collaboratively modulate auxin synthesis in cutting-induced AR formation. Overall, this review not only elucidates the molecular mechanisms underlying AR formation but also provides valuable insights for improving efficiency of cutting propagation in various plant species.

1. Introduction

Asexual reproduction is a core technology for rapidly propagating elite germplasm in agriculture, forestry, and horticulture [1]. This technique preserves the desirable traits of parent trees, significantly shortens the breeding cycle, and exhibits a high genetic stability [2]. Cuttings, a vital asexual propagation technique, play a vital role in large-scale propagation. Adventitious rooting (AR) is a key step for cutting propagation, and this process is a form of de novo root regeneration (DNRR) [3].
The capacity for AR formation shows significant variation across different species and even among varieties of the same species. For example, Pinus tabuliformis, Paeonia suffruticosa, and Camellia oleifera continue to pose challenges in propagation through cuttings [4,5]. In production practice, ARs from cuttings are often classified into three types: cortical rooting, callus rooting, and mixed rooting [6]. Cortical rooting, also known as the “easy-to-root” type, arises directly from the explants and primarily originates from the vascular cambium and surrounding pith rays, such as Petunia hybrid [7,8]. Callus rooting, categorized as the “difficult-to-root” type, is an indirect process that requires the initial formation of callus prior to the development of AR primordia, such as Pinus spp. [9]. Mixed rooting combines both cortical and callus rooting types, which predominates under natural conditions such as Chinese pepper (Zanthoxylum beecheyanum K. Koch) [10].
Recent advances have gradually elucidated the regulatory mechanisms underlying AR formation. In this review, we summarize the process of cutting-induced AR formation, the regulatory mechanisms involved in this process by phytohormones (especially jasmonate (JA) and auxin), and the potential age-related regulatory pathways. This provides a theoretical foundation for understanding the complex regulatory mechanisms of cuttings and establishes a molecular basis for developing highly efficient cutting techniques.

2. Cutting-Induced AR Formation

The framework of DNRR can be divided into three phases, which are early signaling, auxin accumulation, and cell fate transition [3,11]. Among them, the first phase involves changes in auxin biosynthesis in the converter cells. In the second phase, auxin is transported to vascular stem cells with regenerative capacity. In the third phase, auxin triggers the cell fate transition in regeneration-competent cells to form ARs [12].
Early signaling triggers AR formation during cutting propagation. The early signals include wound signals, developmental signals, and environmental signals [3,13,14,15]. Wound signaling has short- and long-term effects on leaf explants. Short-term wound signals include changes in plasma membrane potential, increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration and H2O2 production, and the action of phytohormones such as JA, salicylic acid (SA), and ethylene [3]. In the study of biochemical and anatomical parameters during the cutting process of the recalcitrant Eucalyptus globulus Labill and the more easily rooted Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill ex Maiden, it was revealed that E. grandis exhibits higher cambial activity and more precise regulation of redox conditions. These characteristics may influence reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling and phytohormone homeostasis in cuttings, thereby affecting AR formation [16]. Long-term wound signals may activate the expression of genes like petunia NAM and Arabidopsis ATAF1, ATAF2, and CUC2 (NAC1) and YUCCA4 (YUC4), which regulate the cellular environment and maintain auxin levels to facilitate AR emergence [17]. Environmental signals such as dark treatment and circadian rhythms may also enhance AR formation by affecting the expression of auxin synthesis genes [18]. Approximately 4 h after leaf explant detachment, auxin begins to be synthesized and accumulates in converter cells guided by early signals [19]. At approximately 12 h after wounding, auxin accumulates in regeneration-competent cells (e.g., procambium and vascular parenchyma cells) in the explant close to the wound site [20].
The cell fate transition phase is divided into four steps: priming, initiation, patterning, and emergence [3,11,21]. In the first step, auxin promotes the differentiation of regenerating-competent cells such as procambium and some vascular parenchyma cells into root founder cells about 1–2 days after leaf explant isolation. Approximately 2–4 days after leaf explant isolation, root founder cells form a dome-shaped root primordium with several layers of cells by cell division. Subsequently, the root primordium undergoes successive cell divisions to form the apical meristematic tissue. Finally, in the ‘emergence’ stage, the AR tip forms and ultimately emerges through the epidermis of the leaf explant [3].

3. Key Factors in Cutting-Induced AR Formation

Currently, the efficiency of rooting in cuttings is improved mainly by rejuvenating or adding plant growth regulators. Rejuvenation alters the physiological age of explants—a critical determinant of rooting success [22]. Plant rejuvenation can be achieved in practice by artificial methods such as repeated grafting, continuous in vitro micropropagation, or root cuttings in succession [23,24,25]. In forest tree species, the decline in AR formation potential among stem cuttings is correlated with tree age and maturity [26]. In vitro shoot culture-induced rejuvenation is used in apple rootstocks through DNA methylation reprogramming to retain their juvenile state, restoring their competence for AR formation [27]. Consequently, regulating the physiological age of cutting material may effectively enhance rooting rates. Another crucial strategy for promoting de novo root regeneration in cuttings involves the application of plant growth regulators, among which auxin is recognized as the primary phytohormone regulating AR formation [28]. Different types of auxins and concentrations affect AR formation [29]. In addition, recent studies have shown that cutting diameter also affects AR formation [30]. In Syzygium maire, 1–2 mm softwood cuttings achieved 63.3% rooting without auxin, while supplementation with 1.5 g L−1 IBA raised the success rate to 75% and increased root number [31].

3.1. JA: A Master Trigger for AR Formation

JA serves as a central wound signal in promoting AR formation. Studies on petunia (Petunia hybrida) and pea (Pisum sativum) demonstrate that JA accumulates rapidly at the stem base, thereby promoting AR initiation [7,32,33]. Similarly, in thin cell layers of tobacco and Arabidopsis responsible for AR development, low JA concentrations enhance root formation [34]. In P. ussuriensis, PuHox52 positively regulates AR formation by activating the JA signaling pathway [35]. In Camellia sinensis, aluminum, an essential element for root growth and development in acidic soil, can promote AR formation by activating genes involved in JA biosynthesis as well as genes related to auxin transporter proteins during root formation [36].
The mechanisms by which JA regulates AR formation have been extensively studied. JA activates the expression of ERF115 and regulates the formation of ARs by promoting cytokinin biosynthesis [37]. In addition, JA promotes the expression of the AUXIN-OXIDIZING DIOXYGENASE 1 (DAO1) gene, which regulates the feedback crosstalk between auxin and JA during AR initiation [38]. In Arabidopsis leaf explants, JA levels are highly induced, activating the transcription factor ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR109 (ERF109). ERF109 upregulates expression of an auxin biosynthesis-related gene, ANTHRANILATE SYNTHASE α1 (ASA1), to stimulate AR induction [39]. ERF109 promotes ASA1 expression depending on an epigenetic modification mechanism involving histone H3 lysine 36 trimethylation (H3K36me3) at the ASA1 locus prior to wounding [40]. This H3K36me3 mark is likely essential for the rapid JA-induced upregulation of multiple genes [40]. However, prolonged JA signaling can adversely affect root development. Therefore, two hours after wounding of leaf explants, the JA signaling pathway is blocked through the interaction between ERF109 and jasmonate ZIM-domain (JAZ) proteins [40]. The wound-inducible transcription factor ENHANCER OF SHOOT REGENERATION1 (ESR1) in Arabidopsis leaf explants employs a dual mechanism to activate ASA1 expression, crucial for auxin-dependent de novo root organogenesis at wound sites. ESR1 initially interacts with HISTONE DEACETYLASE6 (HDA6) to inhibit JASMONATE-ZIM DOMAIN5 (JAZ5) expression via histone H3 deacetylation, enabling ERF109 to activate ASA1. Additionally, ESR1 directly binds to the promoter region of ASA1 to enhance its expression, collectively maximizing local auxin biosynthesis and AR formation [41]. Overall, JA precisely modulates auxin dynamics via a complex regulatory network to coordinate efficient AR regeneration. Additionally, JA activates the melatonin (MT) receptors SlPMTR1/2, which are structurally analogous to auxin receptors. These receptors promote AR formation by transmitting signals through the G-PROTEIN ɑ-SUBUNIT 1 (SlGPA1) to SHOOTBORNE ROOTLESS 1 (SlSBRL1), a key regulator of wound-induced root regeneration [42].
During the root regeneration process in cuttings, detached leaves or stems encounter multiple stresses. Wounding and osmotic stress jointly induce ABA INSENSITIVE5 (ABI5) expression and MYC2 upregulation [43]. The two transcription factors ABI5 and MYC2 form a complex that directly binds to the β-GLUCOSIDASE18 (BGLU18) promoter region, activating its expression. BGLU18 functions to release active abscisic acid (ABA) from its glucose ester form, resulting in increased ABA accumulation, which in turn preserves AR formation under stress. Moreover, sequential application of JA and ABA enhances root regeneration in Arabidopsis and poplar cuttings [43]. While ROS, ethylene, and SA also act as early signaling molecules in this process [44], the wound signaling pathways by which they initiate AR formation require further investigation.

3.2. Age: The Key Determinant Controlling AR Formation

The rooting potential of cuttings is significantly affected by age, with a general decline in rooting efficiency as the plant matures. Rooting rates and AR quality were significantly higher in cherry (Prunus avium) juvenile cuttings than in mature cuttings [45]. MicroRNA 156 (miR156) serves as a critical determinant of plant age, with its high expression levels during the juvenile phase being positively correlated with enhanced AR formation ability [46,47,48]. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), overexpression of the miR156 precursor gene promotes AR formation [47,49]. Studies in Arabidopsis reveal that miR156 expression diminishes as the plant matures, resulting in heightened expression of SQUAMOSA PROMOTER BINDING PROTEIN-LIKE (SPL) genes. Subsequently, SPL2/10/11 repress the expression of AP2/ERF transcription factor, such as ERF109, curtailing wound-induced auxin production and undermining the plant’s AR formation capability [50].
DEFICIENS-AGAMOUS-LIKE 1 (DAL1) serves as a pivotal regulator of age in gymnosperms, with its expression progressively increasing as age advances [51,52]. DAL1 expression is lower in juveniles and increases with age. Research indicates that LaDAL1 is highly expressed during the reproductive phase of Larix species. Heterologous overexpression of LaDAL1 promotes seed germination, bolting, and flowering in Arabidopsis thaliana [53,54]. However, its specific role in regulating AR formation in plants remains to be elucidated. In studies on Larix kaempferi, LaAGL, an age-related transcription factor, shows markedly higher expression levels in the adult reproductive phase (25–50 years) compared to the juvenile vegetative phase (1–2 years). Pruning notably reduces the expression of LaAGL2-2 and LaAGL2-3 [55]. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanism by which LaAGL regulates AR formation is still unclear. Furthermore, small RNAs (sRNAs) differentially expressed during grafting in the gymnosperm Sequoia sempervirens may play a role in controlling rooting ability during plant rejuvenation [56]. These findings reveal that these genes act as age factors that may regulate plant AR formation.

3.3. Auxin: The Core Regulator Governing AR Formation

Both age and JA predominantly regulate AR formation through auxin-mediated mechanisms. Auxin, a core control factor, has been used to promote rooting since the late 1930s [57]. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), and 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) are the primary active ingredients of rooting powders commonly used in plant cuttings [58,59]. In production practice, auxin application to cuttings is generally implemented via two distinct regimes: (i) short-duration, high-concentration quick-dips, and (ii) prolonged, low-concentration soaks. For example, 2000 mg L−1 IBA quick-dip maximally promotes rooting in Paeonia ‘Yang Fei Chu Yu’ cuttings (86.7% success) [60]. The 0.54 mM NAA treatment for 1 h effectively induced rooting in hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × P.tremuloides Michx.) single-node cuttings [29]. In white poplar (Populus alba) cuttings, IBA treatment induces root primordia and increases the number of ARs per cutting [61]. By applying synthetic auxin to the difficult-to-root species eucalyptus (Eucalyptus × trabutii) and apple (Malus domestica), their rooting of cuttings can be improved [62]. Together, these results illustrate the importance of auxin in enabling AR formation across diverse plant systems.
The molecular mechanisms by which auxin regulates AR formation have been extensively studied (Table 1). The initiation of AR formation depends on auxin signal perception and transduction. For example, PagFBL1, the poplar homolog of the auxin receptor TIR1, interacts with IAA28 to promote AR formation in the hybrid P. alba × P. glandulosa [63]. Conversely, the bZIP53 transcription factor negatively regulates AR formation by transcriptionally activating the expression of AUX/IAA genes IAA4-1 and IAA4-2, which function as repressors of ARF activity in poplar [64]. In addition, studies combining quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping and transcriptomic analysis of AR developmental traits in poplar hybrids have indicated that the genes SUPERROOT2 (SUR2) and TRYPTOPHAN SYNTHASE ɑ-CHAIN (TSA1) may regulate AR formation by modulating IAA synthesis [65].
WUSCHEL-related homeobox (WOX) family members are crucial for auxin-mediated AR formation. In isolated Arabidopsis leaves, auxin activates WOX11/12 to convert regenerative potential cells into root founder cells [12,19]. Subsequently, WOX11/12 activates the transcription of WOX5 and WOX7, enabling the transition of root founder cells into root primordia [66]. Acting synergistically, WOX11/12 also directly activate LBD16/29 transcription, which is essential for AR formation [67,68]. Similar regulatory functions of WOX5 and WOX11/12 have been identified in poplar. For example, overexpression of PtoWOX11/12a and PtoWOX5a markedly increases regenerated AR numbers [69]. Additionally, overexpression of PtoWUSa, another member of the WOX family, affects polar auxin transport, reducing root length while boosting root number [70]. In 84 K poplar, PagWOX11 promotes DNRR by directly activating PagLBD16 [71]. In apple (Malus×domestica), MdTCP17 interacts with MdWOX11, inhibiting MdWOX11’s binding to the MdLBD29 promoter and thus repressing AR primordium formation [72]. WOX11 also regulates AR formation in rice (Oryza sativa) [73,74], Panax ginseng [75], and banyan (Ficus macrocarpa) [76]. These findings indicate that the AUXIN-WOX11/12-WOX5 and AUXIN-WOX11/12- LBD16/29 modules are vital for the cellular reprogramming underpinning AR formation across plant species.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of short non-coding RNAs that can regulate AR formation by targeting key transcription factors such as ARFs [77]. The transcription factors ARF6, ARF8, and ARF17 have been identified as key regulators of AR formation, modulated by miR167 and miR160 in Populus [78,79]. MiR167 suppresses AR formation by targeting ARF8 mRNA [78]. In contrast, miR160 promotes AR formation by regulating the activity of ARF17 [79]. In addition, miR476a regulates AR formation by repressing RESTORER OF FERTILITY (RFL) genes (restricting mitochondrial energy production) [80]. It also activates PIN-FORMED2/5b (PIN2/5b) to promote auxin efflux, resulting in an increased number of ARs [81].
The function of auxin in AR formation has also been evidenced in other plants. In Camellia sinensis, the CsSPL9-CsGH3.4 module responds to auxin and negatively regulates AR formation by reducing free IAA concentrations [82]. In Malus domestica, MdARF8, an auxin-responsive factor, enhances AR formation by modulating the transcription of GRETCHEN HAGEN 3 genes [15]. In contrast, BROAD-COMPLEX, TRAMTRACK AND BRIC A BRAC, and TRANSCRIPTION ADAPTOR PUTATIVE ZINC FINGER domain protein 2 (MdBT2) inhibit AR formation through interacting with AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR8 (MdARF8) and INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID INDUCIBLE3 (MdIAA3) [15]. In Acer rubrum, ArAux/IAA13 and ArAux/IAA16 were differentially expressed after IBA treatment, and they could interact with ARF proteins to regulate AR growth and development. Overexpression of ArAux/IAA13 and ArAux/IAA16 inhibited AR development, providing a molecular basis for improved rooting in A. rubrum [83]. Moreover, environmental factors such as light can modulate endogenous auxin homeostasis and signaling to govern AR formation. For example, blue light induces the most ARs in tea cuttings by elevating the levels of indole-3-carboxylic acid (ICA), ABA, JA, ABA-glucosyl ester, and trans-zeatin, and up-regulating key hormone-pathway genes (YUC, AUX1, ARF, PIN1/3/4, PILS6/7), revealing the molecular basis for rapid tea seedling propagation [84].
Table 1. List of auxin-associated genes involved in the formation of cutting-induced adventitious root.
Table 1. List of auxin-associated genes involved in the formation of cutting-induced adventitious root.
Gene NameGene FamilySpeciesRoles in Adventitious RootingReferences
PagFBL1TIR1/AFB receptor familyPopulus alba × P. glandulosaAuxin receptor, interacts with IAA28 to promote AR formation[63]
IAA4-1AUX/IAA familyPopulus deltoides and P. euramericanaRepresses ARF activity; negatively regulates AR formation[64]
IAA4-2AUX/IAA familyPopulus deltoides and P. euramericanaRepresses ARF activity; negatively regulates AR formation[64]
AtWOX11WUSCHEL-related homeobox
gene family		Arabidopsis thalianaAuxin-induced; activates root founder cells[68]
AtWOX12WUSCHEL-related homeobox
gene family		Arabidopsis thalianaAuxin-induced; activates root founder cells[68]
AtWOX5WUSCHEL-related homeobox
gene family		Arabidopsis thalianaActivates the transition of root founder cells into root primordia[66]
AtWOX7WUSCHEL-related homeobox
gene family		Arabidopsis thalianaActivates the transition of root founder cells into root primordia[66]
AtLBD16LBD familyArabidopsis thalianaDirectly activated by AtWOX11/12, essential for AR formation[67]
AtLBD29LBD familyArabidopsis thalianaDirectly activated by AtWOX11/12, essential for AR formation[67]
PtoWUSaWUSCHEL-related homeobox
gene family		Populus tomentosaAlters polar auxin transport; reduces root length but increases AR number.[70]
PagWOX11WUSCHEL-related homeobox
gene family		Populus alba × P. glandulosaActivates PagLBD16 to promote de novo root regeneration[71]
PagLBD16LBD familyPopulus alba × P. glandulosaActs downstream of PagWOX11 to mediate root regeneration[71]
MdTCP17TCP familyMalus domestica (apple)Interacts with MdWOX11 and blocks its binding to the MdLBD29 promoter[72]
MdWOX11WUSCHEL-related homeobox
gene family		Malus domestica (apple)Activates MdLBD29; suppressed by MdTCP17[72]
AtARF6ARF familyArabidopsis, PopulusInteracts with WOX11 to activate RGIs and LBD16 for adventitious root primordium[68]
AtARF8ARF familyArabidopsis, PopulusInteracts with WOX11 to activate RGIs and LBD16 for adventitious root primordium[68]
miR167microRNA familyPopulus deltoides × Populus euramericanaSuppresses AR formation by targeting ARF8 mRNA[78]
miR160microRNA familyPopulus deltoides × Populus euramericanaPromotes AR formation by regulating the activity of ARF17[79]
miR476amicroRNA familyPopulus tomentosaRepresses RFL genes; activates PIN2/5b to promote auxin efflux and AR formation[80]
MdARF8ARF familyMalus domestica (apple)Enhances AR formation by modulating GH3 genes[15]
MdBT2BTB-TAZ familyMalus domestica (apple)Inhibits AR formation by interacting with MdARF8 and MdIAA3[15]
ArAuxIAA13AUX/IAA familyAcer rubrumRepress AR formation through interaction with ARF proteins[83]
ArAuxIAA16AUX/IAA familyAcer rubrumRepress AR formation through interaction with ARF proteins[83]

4. Conclusions

Cuttings are essential in asexual propagation of plants, characterized by their efficacy and reliability in conserving the parental plant’s favorable characteristics. Age and phytohormone are key factors influencing AR formation in cuttings. This review summarizes recent advances in the regulation of AR formation by auxin, JA, and age (Figure 1). We highlight how JA serves as a master trigger, while auxin acts as a core regulator, in cutting-induced AR formation in several species. Furthermore, we discuss the mechanistic basis of their interplay during AR formation. Most importantly, AR formation capacity decreases with increasing plant age and is regulated by miR156-SPL in Arabidopsis, whereas DAL1 in gymnosperms is a potential age factor that can be further investigated for its role in AR formation in the future. Interestingly, under stress conditions, JA and ABA collaboratively amplify ABA signals, ensuring the survival of cuttings in adverse environments. In practical production, for recalcitrant plants, cuttings can be pretreated with rejuvenation to reverse ontogenetic aging. Subsequently, exogenous JA or ABA application on rejuvenated cuttings can effectively enhance adventitious root formation. This offers a valuable strategy for large-scale plant propagation, enhancing the efficiency and feasibility of vegetative reproduction. Environmental factors also exert decisive control over adventitious root (AR) regeneration. In species such as Pinus massoniana [85], Corylus avellana L. [86], Eucalyptus, and Populus [87], clonal propagation is constrained by AR capacity, yet its efficiency can be markedly improved by precisely manipulating irradiance, temperature, mineral nutrition, and microbe–plant interactions. These exogenous signals converge with endogenous hormonal networks to determine AR competence. Future research is urgently needed to construct systems biology models covering environment-endogen synergistic regulatory mechanisms and integrate precision genome editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9 to modify key environmental response genes. In addition, synthetic biology tools, such as designing synthetic promoters or gene circuits, can be developed to finely regulate the expression of genes related to plant regeneration. These approaches are expected to break through the genotype-dependent bottleneck, thus establishing a high-throughput asexual reproduction technology system applicable to different species.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft preparation, P.L., S.Z. and X.W.; writing—review and editing, Y.D., Q.H., Y.Z., L.S. and H.H.; supervision, G.Z. and X.L.; funding acquisition, G.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China, grant number 2023YFD2200101, the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 32471821 and 32470434, the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, grant number QNTD202501 and QNTD202502, and the program of Introducing Talents of Discipline to Univer sities grant number 111 project, grant number B13007.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

During the preparation of this manuscript, the author used Kimi Chat, version Kimi+, for the purposes of English language polishing to improve the fluency and readability of the text. The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Biomolecules 15 01089 g001
Figure 1. The molecular framework for hormone- and age-mediated adventitious root (AR) formation in cuttings. MicroRNA 156 (miR156), the hub regulator of juvenility, regulates the jasmonic acid (JA)-mediated wound signaling pathway, subsequently promoting auxin synthesis in angiosperms. DAL1, an age marker gene in gymnosperms, might be involved in AR formation by modulating auxin behavior. JA, acting as a wound signal, directly promotes auxin synthesis to enhance AR formation in cuttings. Under stress conditions, JA and ABA collaboratively amplify ABA signals to protect rooting in cuttings.
Figure 1. The molecular framework for hormone- and age-mediated adventitious root (AR) formation in cuttings. MicroRNA 156 (miR156), the hub regulator of juvenility, regulates the jasmonic acid (JA)-mediated wound signaling pathway, subsequently promoting auxin synthesis in angiosperms. DAL1, an age marker gene in gymnosperms, might be involved in AR formation by modulating auxin behavior. JA, acting as a wound signal, directly promotes auxin synthesis to enhance AR formation in cuttings. Under stress conditions, JA and ABA collaboratively amplify ABA signals to protect rooting in cuttings.
Biomolecules 15 01089 g001
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Liu, P.; Zhang, S.; Wang, X.; Du, Y.; He, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Shen, L.; Hu, H.; Zhang, G.; Li, X. Adventitious Root Formation in Cuttings: Insights from Arabidopsis and Prospects for Woody Plants. Biomolecules 2025, 15, 1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15081089

AMA Style

Liu P, Zhang S, Wang X, Du Y, He Q, Zhang Y, Shen L, Hu H, Zhang G, Li X. Adventitious Root Formation in Cuttings: Insights from Arabidopsis and Prospects for Woody Plants. Biomolecules. 2025; 15(8):1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15081089

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Peipei, Shili Zhang, Xinying Wang, Yuxuan Du, Qizhouhong He, Yingying Zhang, Lisha Shen, Hongfei Hu, Guifang Zhang, and Xiaojuan Li. 2025. "Adventitious Root Formation in Cuttings: Insights from Arabidopsis and Prospects for Woody Plants" Biomolecules 15, no. 8: 1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15081089

APA Style

Liu, P., Zhang, S., Wang, X., Du, Y., He, Q., Zhang, Y., Shen, L., Hu, H., Zhang, G., & Li, X. (2025). Adventitious Root Formation in Cuttings: Insights from Arabidopsis and Prospects for Woody Plants. Biomolecules, 15(8), 1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom15081089

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