The EBLM Project—From False Positives to Benchmark Stars and Circumbinary Exoplanets
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Goals of the EBLM Project
- A comparison sample to the hot Jupiter population. Hot Jupiters were the first exoplanets detected with the radial-velocity and transit methods [46,47]. Despite their relatively low occurrence rates (circa 1 per 200 solar-type stars [48,49]), they are the easiest to find and the most studied [50]. Many of their early characteristics were unclear and some of their characteristics are still puzzling today [50]. Most hot Jupiters are, for instance, inflated beyond what irradiative models predict [51]. When we initiated the EBLM project, some of the hot Jupiters were found on small but non-zero eccentricities, leading to questions about tidal circularisation [52,53,54,55].1 The spin–orbit alignment for many transiting hot Jupiters have been studied using measurements of the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect. A large fraction of these planets are found to have orbital planes misaligned with their host star’s equatorial plane. A likely explanation came in with the Kozai–Lidov mechanism [57,58,59], which is also invoked for the production of short-period binaries [58]. EBLM systems have radii and effective temperatures similar to hot Jupiters, i.e., they occupy a similar region in a colour-magnitude diagram to hot Jupiters [60,61]. As such, EBLM systems provide an interesting comparison sample for many properties of the hot Jupiter population. Using this comparison sample, our early hope was to ascertain whether trends discovered about hot Jupiters might be caused by observational biases, or instead explained via physical processes common to all types of objects, e.g., to explore the apparent radius inflation reported in some early studies of hot Jupiters, brown dwarfs, and low-mass stars.
- Refining the boundaries of the brown dwarf desert. Brown dwarfs are star-like objects with masses between 13 and that fuse deuterium in their core but are not massive enough to fuse hydrogen [62]. They are rarely found in eclipsing geometries, so their physical parameters were mostly unknown when the EBLM project started in 2008. Radial-velocity surveys had shown the existence of a “brown dwarf desert”—a reduced occurrence rate of brown dwarf companions to solar-type stars [63]. Although the occurrence rate is low, it is not zero, so it was expected that some brown dwarfs would eventually be identified in eclipsing binary systems. Transit surveys can identify hot Jupiters in larger numbers than radial-velocity surveys, so we expected that the WASP survey would be an effective way to find these eclipsing brown dwarf systems. The EBLM project could then improve the study of the brown dwarf desert by providing a greater resolution on its shape, of which its masses are the least frequent, and whether the bounds of the desert depend on the mass of the primary star. Since the EBLM systems are typically at a short period, this also refines the characteristics of the desert at a short orbital period. Preliminary results on this topic appeared in [29].
- The study of tides. The phenomenon of tides has been known since antiquity and has many visible effects in the Solar System, e.g., Mercury’s spin–orbit resonance, tidally induced volcanic activity on Jupiter’s moons, and of course, the effects of our own Moon. The loss of energy from the orbit due to tides leads towards the lowest energy configuration in which the orbit is circular and the rotation of the stars is aligned and synchronised with the orbit [53]. There is limited observational evidence available to study the efficiency of orbital synchronisation and circularisation and a function of orbital separation and companion mass. The canonical orbital period for circularisation is ≈8 days [64,65]. This result is based on the samples dominated by binary systems with stars of similar masses. Furthermore, more precise radial velocities are needed to probe if an orbit is truly circular, or instead, if a small but non-negligible eccentricity remains [29]. Tidal synchronisation can be probed using light curves to measure the rotation period of the primary star either via starspot modulation [66] or using spectroscopy to infer the rotation period via spectral line broadening [67]. More work is needed that combines both methods to resolve the ambiguities that exist from using only one of these methods. The alignment of the spin and orbital axes can be measured using the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect. Many results using this method have been published for hot Jupiters and, perhaps surprisingly, often find the rotation and orbital axes to be significantly misaligned [59,68]. Similar studies of binary stars have largely been restricted to massive stars (>, [69]). These results may not be representative of the tidal efficiency in less massive stars which have deep convective envelopes, in contrast to the radiative atmospheres of more massive stars. For all of these tidal signatures, EBLM can more easily be used to probe the limit of efficient tidal interactions, since the low-mass secondaries have a smaller influence at a given separation.
- A sample to seek circumbinary planets. The observation of circumbinary planets was first proposed by [70,71,72], before the discovery of 51 Peg b in 1995 kick-started the exoplanet revolution [46]. Despite theoretical work implying such planets might not exist or may be very rare, there were ample reasons to test these predictions, given that exoplanet detections have often defied theoretical expectations, e.g., the existence of both hot Jupiters and super-Earths were unexpected discoveries. The first proposed method for circumbinary detection was the transit method [70,71,72], which led to the first bona fide circumbinary planet discovery (Kepler-16 [73]). Since the early 2000s, there have also been significant efforts to use radial velocities to find circumbinary planets, e.g., the TATOOINE project (The Attempt To Observe Outer-planets In Non-single-stellar Environments). This project’s goal was to detect circumbinary planets orbiting bright nearby double-lined binaries [74,75]. However, despite much effort spent in refining algorithms to both disentangle the spectra and extract accurate radial-velocities, the TATOOINE team concluded that too much noise remained present in their data for an effective circumbinary exoplanet search [75]. Instead, they suggested that single-lined systems would be better suited for such surveys [75]. Few suitable binary systems were known at the time, but the advent of large-scale surveys for transiting exoplanets, such as WASP that identified dozens of EBLM systems, made this idea viable. In particular, the BEBOP search for circumbinary planets (Binaries Escorted By Orbiting Planets) is an offshoot of the EBLM project [44], which we describe in more detail in Section 5.1.
3. History and Background to the EBLM Project
3.1. The WASP Project
3.2. The WASP Follow-Up Programme and the Origin of the EBLM Flag
3.3. Origins of the EBLM Project
4. Methodology
4.1. Mass and Radius Estimates for EBLM Systems
4.2. Primary Star Characterisation
4.3. M-Dwarf Effective Temperature Estimates
4.4. The Rossiter–McLaughlin Effect
5. Related Projects
5.1. The BEBOP Radial-Velocity Search for Circumbinary Planets
5.2. Improved Effective Temperature Measurements
5.3. Tidal Evolution
6. Discussion
6.1. An Updated View of M-Dwarf Properties
6.2. On the Accuracy of M-Dwarf Parameters for EBLM Binaries
6.3. Triple Systems
7. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
EB | Eclipsing binary (star) |
EBLM | Eclipsing binary–low mass |
CLV | Centre-to-limb variation |
RM | Rossiter–McLaughlin |
RV | Radial velocity |
SB1 | Single-lined spectroscopic binary star |
SB2 | Double-lined spectroscopic binary star |
1 | It later transpired those small eccentricities were spurious, artefacts of the fitting algorithms which were later adapted to avoid the problem [56]. |
2 | https://wasp-planets.net (accessed on 19 November 2023). |
3 | This system was assigned a WASP number rather than an EBLM identifier because it has a “sub-stellar” companion. |
4 | Also referred to as where . |
5 | https://github.com/pmaxted/ellc (accessed on 19 November 2023). |
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Maxted, P.F.L.; Triaud, A.H.M.J.; Martin, D.V. The EBLM Project—From False Positives to Benchmark Stars and Circumbinary Exoplanets. Universe 2023, 9, 498. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe9120498
Maxted PFL, Triaud AHMJ, Martin DV. The EBLM Project—From False Positives to Benchmark Stars and Circumbinary Exoplanets. Universe. 2023; 9(12):498. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe9120498
Chicago/Turabian StyleMaxted, Pierre F. L., Amaury H. M. J. Triaud, and David V. Martin. 2023. "The EBLM Project—From False Positives to Benchmark Stars and Circumbinary Exoplanets" Universe 9, no. 12: 498. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe9120498