Pet Exposure Is Associated with Altered Gut Microbiota and Higher Phospholipid and Protein Concentrations in the Breast Milk of Overweight/Obese Pregnant Women

Liu, Yanpin; Yang, Di; Zhao, Junying; Liu, Yan; Wang, Yaling; Liu, Yan; Liu, Qian; Fan, Xiaofei; Liu, Bin; Zhang, Minghui; Qiao, Weicang; Li, Man; Wang, Jianyu; Du, Mengjing; Guo, Ling; Chen, Lijun

doi:10.3390/metabo16050317

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Pet Exposure Is Associated with Altered Gut Microbiota and Higher Phospholipid and Protein Concentrations in the Breast Milk of Overweight/Obese Pregnant Women

by

Yanpin Liu

^1,2,3,†

,

Di Yang

^1,2,3,†,

Junying Zhao

^2,3,†,

Yan Liu

^2,3,

Yaling Wang

^2,3,

Yan Liu

^2,3,

Qian Liu

^2,3,

Xiaofei Fan

^1,2,3,

Bin Liu

^2,3,

Minghui Zhang

^2,3,

Weicang Qiao

^2,3,

Man Li

^2,3,

Jianyu Wang

^2,3,

Mengjing Du

^2,3,

Ling Guo

^1,*

and

Lijun Chen

^2,3,*

¹

College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China

²

National Engineering Research Center of Dairy Health for Maternal and Child, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co., Ltd., Beijing 100163, China

³

Beijing Engineering Research Center of Dairy, Beijing Technical Innovation Center of Human Milk Research, Beijing Sanyuan Foods Co. Ltd., Beijing 100163, China

^*

Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.

^†

These authors contributed equally to this work.

Metabolites 2026, 16(5), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16050317

Submission received: 12 March 2026 / Revised: 29 April 2026 / Accepted: 6 May 2026 / Published: 9 May 2026

(This article belongs to the Section Endocrinology and Clinical Metabolic Research)

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Abstract

Background: The first 1000 days of a child’s life, from a woman’s pregnancy to her child’s second birthday, represent a critical window during which nutritional and environmental exposures shape long-term health. Gut microbiota play an important role in metabolic and overall health. Although pet exposure during pregnancy affects neonatal microbiota, immunity, and development, its effects on maternal health remain unclear. This study investigated the associations of pet exposure with gestational health, maternal and infant microbiota, and breast milk composition in overweight/obese pregnant women. Methods: Fecal samples and breast milk samples were collected from pet-exposed participants (n = 22) and non-exposed controls (n = 32) for 16S rRNA sequencing. Breast milk lipids and proteins were also quantified. Results: Pet exposure before conception, during pregnancy, and postpartum was not associated with gestational diabetes mellitus or gestational weight gain. In the maternal gut, the relative abundances of Proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia, Sutterellaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Akkermansia muciniphila, and Parabacteroides were higher, whereas that of Ruminococcus was lower, in the pet-exposed group. In breast milk, the relative abundance of Escherichia-Shigella and the concentrations of phosphatidylinositol 36:2, phosphatidylethanolamine 38:3, lysine, and β-casein were higher, whereas the abundance of Rothia was lower, in the pet-exposed group. The relative abundance of Escherichia-Shigella was also lower in the infant gut of the pet-exposed group. Conclusions: In overweight/obese pregnant women, pet exposure was associated with differences in maternal gut and breast milk microbiota, higher concentrations of selected breast milk phospholipids and β-casein, and lower Escherichia-Shigella abundance in the infant gut.

Keywords: breast milk; gut microbiota; maternal pet exposure; overweight/obese pregnant women

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MDPI and ACS Style

Liu, Y.; Yang, D.; Zhao, J.; Liu, Y.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y.; Liu, Q.; Fan, X.; Liu, B.; Zhang, M.; et al. Pet Exposure Is Associated with Altered Gut Microbiota and Higher Phospholipid and Protein Concentrations in the Breast Milk of Overweight/Obese Pregnant Women. Metabolites 2026, 16, 317. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16050317

AMA Style

Liu Y, Yang D, Zhao J, Liu Y, Wang Y, Liu Y, Liu Q, Fan X, Liu B, Zhang M, et al. Pet Exposure Is Associated with Altered Gut Microbiota and Higher Phospholipid and Protein Concentrations in the Breast Milk of Overweight/Obese Pregnant Women. Metabolites. 2026; 16(5):317. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16050317

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Yanpin, Di Yang, Junying Zhao, Yan Liu, Yaling Wang, Yan Liu, Qian Liu, Xiaofei Fan, Bin Liu, Minghui Zhang, and et al. 2026. "Pet Exposure Is Associated with Altered Gut Microbiota and Higher Phospholipid and Protein Concentrations in the Breast Milk of Overweight/Obese Pregnant Women" Metabolites 16, no. 5: 317. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16050317

APA Style

Liu, Y., Yang, D., Zhao, J., Liu, Y., Wang, Y., Liu, Y., Liu, Q., Fan, X., Liu, B., Zhang, M., Qiao, W., Li, M., Wang, J., Du, M., Guo, L., & Chen, L. (2026). Pet Exposure Is Associated with Altered Gut Microbiota and Higher Phospholipid and Protein Concentrations in the Breast Milk of Overweight/Obese Pregnant Women. Metabolites, 16(5), 317. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16050317

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Pet Exposure Is Associated with Altered Gut Microbiota and Higher Phospholipid and Protein Concentrations in the Breast Milk of Overweight/Obese Pregnant Women

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