Bio-Waste to Bioenergy: Critical Assessment of Sustainable Energy Supply Chain in Egypt

Abstract

This study analyses the potential electricity output from different bio wastes using various energy conversion technologies to enhance the share of renewable energy. Furthermore, it evaluates the carbon emissions mitigated by replacing fossil fuels with bioenergy, contributing to efforts to reduce environmental pollution. The findings reveal that Egypt’s annual biomass waste (BW) could total approximately 80 million tons, with the most significant contributions from agricultural crop residues and municipal solid waste (MSW). MSW incineration and crop residue combustion were found to have the highest power generation compared to other techniques. Additionally, the anaerobic digestion of various biomass types offers the benefits of lower greenhouse gas emissions while still generating significant energy. The electricity generation from different BW sources is approximately 49.14 TWh/year. This energy can be predominantly generated through direct combustion of agricultural crop residues (66%), incineration of MSW (29%), anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge (3%), and animal waste (2%). Furthermore, the reduction in carbon emissions from substituting fossil fuels with bioenergy is estimated at up to 30.47 million tons of CO₂ annually, supporting efforts to mitigate climate change and combat global warming.

1. Introduction

Egypt’s power generation relies heavily on fossil fuels, which account for 90% of the energy mix. Among these, natural gas is the primary source, contributing 81% of the total power generation [1]. The remainder of the energy supply comes from hydropower and other renewable sources. However, this heavy dependence on fossil fuels has increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, environmental degradation, and vulnerability to global fuel price fluctuations [2]. Recognizing these challenges, the Egyptian government has set ambitious targets to diversify its energy sources and increase reliance on renewables. It aims to achieve 42% of its energy mix from renewable sources by 2030 [3].

Egypt has been exploring biomass power generation as part of its renewable energy strategy [4]. Bioenergy from biomass waste (BW) presents a significant opportunity for Egypt to address energy needs, waste management (WM), and environmental protection [1]. The advancement of BW to bioenergy technologies represents a critical challenge in enhancing the efficiency of the energy supply chain, encompassing all stages from energy harvesting from the source, energy conversion and storage, transmission and distribution, and consumption and end-use [5]. Addressing this challenge requires innovative strategies and technological solutions that optimize each supply chain segment (see Figure 1). To this end, numerous modeling and analytical approaches have been developed to evaluate and improve the performance and sustainability of bioenergy systems [6,7,8,9].

Bioenergy derived from BW such as agricultural residues, municipal solid waste (MSW), animal manure, and sewage sludge offers an alternative to fossil fuels [3]. Despite its potential, BW in Egypt is often underutilized, with large quantities either being burned in open fields, leading to severe air pollution, or left to decompose, releasing methane and other harmful gases [4,10]. Various energy conversion technologies, including anaerobic digestion, gasification, pyrolysis, and direct combustion, can be employed to extract energy from BW materials [11]. Converting BW into energy can reduce GHG emissions compared to fossil fuels and help mitigate environmental impacts [12]. Moreover, bioenergy development aligns with Egypt’s sustainable development goals by promoting resource efficiency and reducing reliance on imported fuels [2]. Developing a bioenergy sector can also create jobs in rural areas, from collection and processing to energy production and distribution. Moreover, converting BW into energy can mitigate waste disposal issues, contributing to cleaner cities and rural areas [13]. In response to these opportunities, the Egyptian government has introduced policies and incentives to promote bioenergy projects, such as feed-in tariffs, tax incentives, and grants for research and development [1].

Egypt’s agricultural sector produces significant amounts of BW, mainly from crops such as wheat, rice, maize, and sugarcane [14]. Studies indicate that if properly managed, these residues could generate significant amounts of renewable energy while simultaneously reducing open field burning [4]. Moreover, MSW-to-energy initiatives in Egypt are gaining momentum as a sustainable approach to both WM and energy production. Given the country’s significant waste disposal challenges, converting MSW into energy offers multiple advantages, such as electricity generation and environmental improvement [15].

Furthermore, proper management of animal waste (AW) helps to reduce pollution, odors, and the risk of water contamination from runoff [16]. Using AW for biogas production not only diversifies Egypt’s energy sources but also decreases dependence on fossil fuels [17]. Additionally, the use of digestate in agriculture supports nutrient recycling, enhancing soil fertility and promoting sustainable farming practices [18]. Therefore, anaerobic digestion is an effective solution for managing AW by converting it into renewable energy and valuable fertilizers [17]. Furthermore, effective treatment and conversion of sewage are crucial for reducing pollution and the environmental risks associated with untreated wastewater. Anaerobic digestion is the most efficient method for transforming sewage waste (SW) into renewable energy and producing digestate, a nutrient-rich fertilizer that supports sustainable agriculture [19].

Egypt has implemented several biogas plants as part of its renewable energy strategy. Notable projects include Mawared Industries’ portable biogas units in Zewail City, processing organic waste to generate 2200 cubic meters of biogas annually for cooking and fertilizer [17]. EnGas operates the Sakha-2 biogas plant in Kafr El-Sheikh, producing approximately 1100 kW of electricity and fertilizers from biogas [20]. The first anaerobic digester for sludge stabilization in Egypt is Al Gabal Al Asfar (the largest wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in the Middle East and North Africa) that treats up to 2.5 million cubic meters of wastewater daily and generates electricity using biogas, which is then used for power generation, contributing significantly to the plant’s energy needs [21]. Given the successful outcomes of using anaerobic digestion for sludge stabilization at the Gabel Al-Asfar WWTP, there is increasing interest in expanding anaerobic digestion technology to other WWTPs across Egypt, particularly those with high treatment capacities [21]. Small-scale biogas units are also gaining traction among farmers for household energy needs [17]. These initiatives contribute to sustainable energy production, WM, and environmental protection in Egypt. Moreover, investing in advanced biogas systems and improving wastewater treatment infrastructure could significantly contribute to Egypt’s renewable energy capacity [2].

The current situation of biomass-to-energy in Egypt is still in its early stages, despite the country’s abundant biomass resources. While some initiatives, such as small-scale biogas plants in rural areas, have been implemented, large-scale biomass energy projects remain limited [17]. Most biomass is underutilized or improperly managed, leading to environmental pollution and waste accumulation. The sector faces several limitations, including insufficient infrastructure, high initial investment costs, a lack of advanced technologies, and weak regulatory frameworks. Additionally, limited public awareness and economic challenges, such as competition with subsidized fossil fuels, hinder the expansion of biomass energy projects [22]. Addressing these barriers through targeted policies, technological advancements, and increased investment is essential for integrating biomass into Egypt’s energy mix and achieving sustainability.

Egypt ranks highest in the MENA region for total BW generation compared to Algeria, Jordan, and Morocco, positioning it as a key contributor to bioenergy development [15]. Although Egypt possesses significant potential for energy resources, limited studies have explored bioenergy and focused on specific biomass types and their conversion into electric energy [10,17,23]. Moreover, stakeholders’ awareness about bioenergy’s advantages and potential remains limited [17]. Therefore, this study aims to bridge this gap by highlighting the bioenergy of BW for electricity generation and environmental protection in Egypt. It evaluates the electric energy output from various biomass types using diverse energy conversion technologies to boost renewable energy’s share. Additionally, it assesses carbon emissions mitigated by substituting fossil fuels with bioenergy, supporting efforts to reduce environmental pollution. By providing a comprehensive analysis of Egypt’s biomass and its role in sustainable energy development, this study aims to support informed decision-making and encourage investments in bioenergy projects.

2. Methodology

This study explores the potential for electricity generation from primary BW, including agricultural crop residues, MSW, and AW and SW, utilizing various energy conversion technologies such as combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and anaerobic digestion. Additionally, it evaluates GHG emissions associated with these processes and quantifies the carbon emissions mitigated by substituting fossil fuels with biomass-derived energy. The methodology applied for BW-to-energy production in the current study is illustrated in Figure 2.

2.1. Data Collection for Biomass Waste

Data were gathered from the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics to estimate Egypt’s primary BW sources [14].

Table 1. Data collection related to biomass sources for the years 2017–2021 [14].

Year	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021
Annual crop production (106 tons)
Wheat	8.42	8.35	8.56	9.10	9.84
Maize	8.54	8.35	7.59	7.59	8.04
Rice	4.96	3.12	4.80	4.44	4.24
Sugarcane	15.38	15.82	15.34	15.86	15.96
Cotton	0.26	0.43	0.28	0.23	0.49
Sorghum	0.81	0.80	0.76	0.80	0.79
Barley	0.10	0.08	0.11	0.11	0.09
Animal head number (103)
Cows	4387	4379	2809	2745	2812
buffaloes	3433	3445	1427	1348	1428
Camels	156	85	91	79	239
Goats	3974	3572	977	925	1131
Sheep	5305	4830	2082	1936	1938
TWW (106 m3/year)	4282.20	4637.30	5114.80	5135.30	5233.60
MSW (103 tons/day)	76.71	82.19	100.27	74.58	76.71

presents the annual data used to calculate the BW available in Egypt over five years (2017–2021), covering four main categories: agricultural crop residues, MSW, sewage sludge, and AW. The table shows that wheat production increased from 8.42 to 9.84 million tons, indicating a rising trend in crop output and thus a growing volume of agricultural residues like wheat straw. Similarly, maize and rice showed stable production levels, ensuring a consistent residue supply. For MSW, there is an evident growth trend from 76.71 thousand tons/day in 2017 to a peak of 100.27 in 2019, followed by a slight decline, possibly due to improved recycling or population behavior shifts.

Treated wastewater (TWW) volumes ranged from 4.97 to 5.35 billion m³/year, contributing to sewage sludge generation, a key source for anaerobic digestion. Animal populations, including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels, showed minor fluctuations but consistently represent a significant source of organic waste with high biogas potential. For instance, the cattle population remained around 5 million, ensuring steady manure availability. These datasets collectively support modeling electricity generation and GHG emissions from biomass waste. By compiling sector-specific production figures, the table provides a foundational dataset that feeds into subsequent energy potential calculations, technology mapping, and emissions assessment. It also highlights Egypt’s substantial and diverse biomass waste resources, reinforcing the importance of waste-to-energy strategies for national sustainability goals.

2.2. Calculation Methods

2.2.1. Municipal Solid Waste

In Egypt, a substantial amount of MSW is generated annually, comprising 56% organic materials, 13% plastics, 10% paper, 4% glass, 2% metals, 2% textiles, and 13% other materials [14,15]. Of the total waste, 81% is dumped in open sites, 12% is recycled, and only 7% is landfilled [15].

This study presents four proposed scenarios for MSW management: open dumping, landfilling for energy recovery, incineration for electricity generation using a steam turbine, and waste separation with integrated technologies. The integrated approach involves anaerobic digestion of organic waste, pyrolysis of plastics, refuse-derived fuel (RDF) combustion of paper, textiles, and other materials, and recycling of metals and glass, as supported by previous research [24].

Table 2. The analytical data and calculation parameters for electricity generation estimation.

Approach	Parameter	Value	References
Open dumping	GHG emissions	1.11 tons CO2 eq/ton MSW	[25]
Incineration	LHV of MSW Heat recovery efficiency Electricity generation GHG emissions	9850 MJ/ton MSW 80% 1 MWh/15.65 GJ 0.197 tons CO2 eq/ton MSW	[25,26,27]
Landfilling	Methane volume factor Methane LHV GHG emissions	79.50 m3 CH4/ton MSW 17 MJ/m3 0.88 tons CO2 eq/ton MSW	[25,26]
Integrated
Anaerobic digestion (organic wastes)	Biogas volume Methane content Methane LHV Electric efficiency Energy conversion factor GHG emissions	180.60 m3/ton organic waste (60–70%) 17 MJ/m3 35% 0.38 to 0.88 0.085 to 0.251 kg CO2 eq/kWh	[24,28,29]
Pyrolysis (plastic wastes)	Oil production Oil energy content Electric efficiency Energy conversion factor GHG emissions	0.71 kg oil/kg plastic 39.60 MJ/kg oil 33% 0.50 to 0.80 0.012 to 0.100 kg CO2 eq/MJ	[24,28,30]
RDF combustion (paper + textile + others)	Energy content Electric efficiency GHG emissions	15.91 MJ/kg waste 18% 0.38 Mt CO2 eq/ton waste	[24,28]

outlines the analytical data and key parameters for estimating electricity generation from MSW in Egypt. This includes detailed values for each waste component, such as organic matter, plastics, paper, textiles, and others, based on their calorific values, moisture content, and conversion efficiencies. The data provide a foundation for determining the energy potential of MSW through different technologies like incineration, landfilling, anaerobic digestion, and RDF combustion. For example, organic waste, which has a relatively low calorific value due to its high moisture content, is more suitable for biogas production through anaerobic digestion. The table also includes emission factors and system efficiencies critical for calculating GHG impacts. For instance, incineration has a higher energy yield per ton of dry waste but also comes with higher CO₂ emissions, whereas anaerobic digestion produces lower emissions. The use of technology-specific conversion rates helps tailor energy estimations to Egypt’s current waste treatment infrastructure.

The electricity generation from MSW was estimated using parameters in Table 2 and equations derived from previous studies [24,25,26,28,31,32].

$${\mathrm{EG}}_{\mathrm{I}} = {\mathrm{MSW}}_{\mathrm{q}} \times {\mathrm{LHV}}_{\mathrm{MSW}} \times {\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{elec}} \times \mathrm{ER}$$

(1)

where EG_I: electricity generation from MSW incineration; MSW_q: MSW quantity, LHV_MSW: MSW lower heating value, ${\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{elec}}$: incineration heat recovery efficiency; ER: electricity generation rate.

$${EG}_L = {0.278 \times \mathrm{MSW}}_{\mathrm{q}} \times {\mathrm{M}}_{\mathrm{V}} \times {\mathrm{LHV}}_{\mathrm{M}}$$

(2)

where EG_L: electricity generation from MSW landfilling; M_V: methane volume factor; and LHV_M: methane lower heating value.

$${\mathrm{EG}}_{\mathrm{OW}} = 0.278 \times { \mathrm{OW}}_{\mathrm{q}} \times {\mathrm{B}}_{\mathrm{ow}} \times {\% \mathrm{M} \times \mathrm{LHV}}_{\mathrm{M}} \times {\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{elec}} \times {\mathrm{EF}}_{\mathrm{b}}$$

(3)

where EG_OW: electricity generation from anaerobic digestion of organic waste; OWq: organic waste quantity; B_ow: biogas volume from organic waste; % M: methane content of biogas; LHV_M: methane lower heating value; ${\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{elec}}$: electric efficiency of steam turbine power plant; and CF: energy conversion factor for biogas production.

$${\mathrm{EG}}_{\mathrm{P}} = {0.278 \times \mathrm{PW}}_{\mathrm{q}} \times {\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{P}} \times {\mathrm{EC}}_{\mathrm{O}} \times {\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{elec}} \times {\mathrm{EF}}_{\mathrm{O}}$$

(4)

where EGp: electricity generation from pyrolysis of plastic wastes; PW_q: plastic waste quantity; O_P: oil production from pyrolysis; EC_o: energy content of oil; ${\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{elec}}$: electric efficiency of pyrolysis power plant; and EF: energy conversion factor for bio-oil production.

$${\mathrm{EG}}_{\mathrm{RDF} }= 0.278 \times {\mathrm{RDF}}_{\mathrm{q}} \times {\mathrm{EC}}_{\mathrm{RDF}} \times {\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{elec}}$$

(5)

where EG_RDF: electricity generation from waste RDF combustion; RDF_q: RDF waste quantity; EC_RDF: RDF waste energy content; ${\mathsf{\eta }}_{\mathrm{elec}}$: electricity generation efficiency of RDF combustion.

2.2.2. Agriculture Crop Residues

Crop residues are lignocellulosic materials with high volatile solids and carbon content and low moisture content. These characteristics make them an ideal waste for energy generation using various technologies [33]. The low moisture content makes crop residues a suitable feedstock for thermochemical conversion methods like combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis [34]. The high cellulose and hemicellulose content, easily hydrolyzed into fermentable sugars, makes crop residues a promising candidate for ethanol production through biochemical conversion processes [29]. Additionally, their high volatile solids and carbon content suggest strong potential for biogas production via anaerobic digestion, potentially in combination with other waste materials such as sewage sludge [19,35,36].

Table 3. Data collected for crop residue production and energy estimation.

Crop Residue	Residue to Production Ratio	Moisture (%)	LHV (MJ/kg)
Wheat straw	1.00	15.00	18.20
Maize stalk	1.00	30.00	17.90
Rice straw	1.05	15.00	17.50
Sugarcane bagasse	0.23	50.00	18.00
Cotton stalks	2.70	10.00	18.61
Sorghum straw	1.25	15.00	12.38
Barley straw	1.00	15.00	18.20
References	[14,37,38]	[37,39,40]	[38,39,40]

presents the collected data on crop residue production in Egypt and the corresponding potential for energy generation. It lists key crops, such as rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, cotton, and others, alongside their annual production volumes and residue-to-product ratios. Using lower heating values (LHVs) and conversion efficiency parameters, the table estimates the energy potential of each residue type. The methodology reflects realistic agricultural waste availability, considering seasonal variations and local residue characteristics.

Table 4. Analysis of data for electric energy and GHG emissions estimation related to crop residues.

Power Plant	Fuel Product	Power Plant Efficiency (%)	Energy Conversion Factor	GHG Emissions (kg CO2 eq/MJ)
Combustion	Gas	30.00	----	0.25 to 0.30
Gasification	Syngas	33.00	0.50 to 0.80	0.02 to 0.14
Pyrolysis	Bio-oil	33.00	0.50 to 0.80	0.01 to 0.10
Anaerobic digestion	Biogas	35.00	0.38 to 0.88	0.02 to 0.07
Fermentation	Ethanol	40.00	0.24 to 0.32	0.04 to 0.05
References		[29]	[29]	[31,32,41]

compares key parameters influencing electricity generation and GHG emissions from various biomass conversion technologies using crop residues. It includes five technologies: combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion, and fermentation. The table outlines power plant efficiency, fuel product type, energy conversion factors (MJ/kg), and GHG emission ranges in kg CO₂ equivalent (CO₂ eq) per MJ. Anaerobic digestion shows the highest efficiency (35%) with relatively low emissions (0.02–0.07 kg CO₂ eq/MJ), making it an environmentally favorable option. Combustion has the lowest efficiency (30%) and the highest emissions (0.25–0.30 kg CO₂ eq/MJ), highlighting its environmental drawbacks. Gasification and pyrolysis offer moderate efficiencies (33%) and produce syngas and bio-oil, respectively, with wider energy conversion ranges and notably lower emissions than combustion. Although achieving the highest efficiency (40%), fermentation has a limited energy conversion factor and relatively narrow GHG emission range (0.04–0.05 kg CO₂ eq/MJ).

The combustion power plant is integrated with a steam turbine cycle for electricity generation. Gasification and pyrolysis plants are paired with an internal combustion engine, an anaerobic digestion plant is combined with a steam turbine power plant, and a fermentation plant is coupled with an internal combustion engine. GHG emissions from combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion, and fermentation were evaluated based on the calculation parameters presented in Table 4. The electricity generation from each process can be calculated based on the parameters and equations derived from previous studies [31,32].

$$\mathrm{CR} = \mathrm{CP} \times \mathrm{RPR}$$

(6)

$${PE}_{CR} = \mathrm{CR} \times (1 - \%\mathrm{H}) \times {\mathrm{LHV}}_{\mathrm{CR}}$$

(7)

$${EG}_{CR} = 0.278 \times {PE}_{CR} \times \mathrm{EE} \times {\eta }_{elec}$$

(8)

where CR: crop residue production; CP: crop production; RPR: residue to production ratio; PE_CR: potential energy of crop residue; %H: humidity percentage of crop residues; LHV_CR: lower heating value of crop residues; EG_CR: electricity generation from crop residue; ${\eta }_{elec}$: power plant electric efficiency; EF: energy conversion factor.

2.2.3. Animal Wastes

Anaerobic digestion is the most effective technology for recovering energy from AW.

Table 5. Data analysis for animal waste, energy, and GHG emissions estimation.

Parameter	Cows	Buffaloes	Camels	Goats	Sheep	References
Water content of AW (%)	85–90	85–90	38–61	70–80	70–80	[44,45]
Animal head waste (kg fresh dung/animal/day)	8–15	8–15	20	1–5	1	[42,43]
Biogas production (m3/kg fresh dung)	0.02–0.04	0.02–0.04	0.03	0.05	0.04	[42,43]
Electricity generation factor (kWh/m3)	1.7					[42]
GHG emissions factor (kg CO2 eq/kWh)	0.09 to 0.25					[31]

presents a comparative analysis of AW characteristics, biogas yields, and corresponding GHG emissions through electricity generation. It includes data for cows, buffalo, camels, goats, and sheep. The water content of AW varies significantly, with camels having notably lower moisture (38–61%) compared to cows and buffaloes (85–90%), and goats and sheep (70–80%). The daily waste generation per animal ranges from 1 kg (sheep) to 20 kg (camels), reflecting the variation in animal size and metabolic output. Biogas production per kilogram of fresh dung is also provided, with goats producing the highest (0.05 m³/kg) and cows, buffaloes the lowest (0.02–0.04 m³/kg). Camels produce a moderate 0.03 m³/kg. The electricity generation factor used is 1.7 kWh per cubic meter of biogas, a standard conversion value referenced from the literature [42]. This data is crucial for estimating livestock waste’s energy potential and GHG mitigation impact across different animal types in Egypt. The amount of AW and the electrical energy generated through anaerobic digestion are calculated using the parameters in Table 5 and Equations (9) and (10) derived from previous studies [14,42,43].

$$\mathrm{AW} = \mathrm{HW} \times \mathrm{HN}$$

(9)

$${\mathrm{EG}}_{\mathrm{AW}} = \mathrm{AW} \times {\mathrm{B}}_{\mathrm{P}} \times \mathrm{EF}$$

(10)

where, AW: AW amount; HW: head waste; HN: head numbers; EG_AW: electricity generation from AW; B_P: biogas production; and EF: electricity generation factor.

2.2.4. Sewage Wastes

In Egypt, a significant volume of TWW is produced annually [14].

Table 6. Analysis of sewage sludge, electric energy, and GHG estimations.

Parameter	Value	References
TWWv (million m3/year)	5234.10	[14]
Dry sludge factor (kg/m3 TWW)	0.48	[44]
Biogas production (m3/ton dry sludge)	350	[46]
Electricity generation factor (kWh/m3)	1.7	[42]
GHG emissions (kg CO2 eq/kWh)	0.09 to 0.25	[31]

presents key parameters for estimating electricity generation and GHG emissions from sewage sludge in Egypt. The total TWW volume is reported at 5234.10 million m³/year, reflecting the scale of wastewater treatment infrastructure and its potential for resource recovery. Using a dry sludge factor of 0.48 kg per cubic meter TWW, the annual dry sludge output can be calculated. From each ton of dry sludge, 350 cubic meters of biogas can be produced, highlighting the significant energy potential of SW. With an electricity generation factor of 1.7 kWh per cubic meter of biogas, this translates into substantial electricity generation capacity. The GHG emissions per unit of electricity generated range from 0.09 to 0.25 kg CO₂ eq per kWh, depending on specific system efficiencies and emission control measures. The dry weight of sewage sludge and the resulting electricity generation can be estimated according to the parameters and equations derived, (11) and (12), from previous research [42,46,47].

$${\mathrm{S}}_d = {\mathrm{TWW}}_{\mathrm{V}} \times \mathrm{DF}$$

(11)

$${\mathrm{EG}}_{S }= {\mathrm{S}}_d \times {\mathrm{B}}_{\mathrm{P}} \times \mathrm{EF}$$

(12)

where, S_d: dry amount of sludge; TWWv: treated wastewater volume; $\mathrm{DF}$: dry sludge factor; EG_S: electricity generation from sludge; B_P: biogas production; and EF: electricity generation factor.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Biomass Wastes

The data presented in

Table 7. Biomass wastes for the years 2017–2021.

Year	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021
Crop residues production (106 tons)
Wheat straw	8.42	8.35	8.56	9.10	9.84
Maize stalk	8.54	8.35	7.59	7.59	8.04
Rice straw	5.19	3.27	5.03	4.65	4.44
Sugarcane bagasse	3.60	3.71	3.59	3.72	3.74
Cotton stalks	0.70	1.15	0.76	0.62	1.32
Sorghum straw	1.01	1.01	0.95	1.00	0.99
Barley straw	0.10	0.08	0.11	0.11	0.09
Total	27.57	25.91	26.59	26.78	28.46
Animal waste (106 tons)
Cows	18.41	18.38	11.79	11.52	11.80
Buffaloes	14.41	14.46	5.99	5.66	5.99
Camels	1.14	0.62	0.66	0.58	1.74
Goats	3.63	3.26	0.89	0.84	1.03
Sheep	1.94	1.76	0.76	0.71	0.71
Total	39.53	38.48	20.10	19.31	21.28
Dry sewage sludge (106 tons)	2.06	2.23	2.46	2.46	2.51
MSW (106 tons)	28.00	30.00	36.60	27.22	27.95

provides a detailed overview of BW availability in Egypt over the five years from 2017 to 2021. It covers four major categories of biomass: crop residues, AW, dry sewage sludge, and MSW, measured in million tons. This longitudinal dataset offers insights into fluctuations in BW generation and potential for bioenergy recovery. Starting with crop residues, the total annual production showed moderate variation, ranging from 25.91 to 28.46 million tons. Wheat straw consistently contributed the highest share, increasing from 8.42 million tons in 2017 to 9.84 million tons in 2021. This upward trend suggests increasing wheat production or improved residue recovery. Maize stalks followed closely, though production slightly declined over the years, with a noticeable drop in 2019 and 2020 (7.59 million tons) before partially recovering to 8.04 million tons in 2021. Rice straw, a key bio resource in Egypt, fluctuated significantly, dropping to 3.27 million tons in 2018 but recovering to over 5 million tons in 2019, then gradually declining to 4.44 million tons in 2021. Sugarcane bagasse, derived from Egypt’s southern agricultural zones, remained relatively stable around 3.6 to 3.74 million tons annually. Cotton stalks, which are regionally concentrated, showed more fluctuation, from a low of 0.62 million tons in 2020 to a sharp increase in 2021, reaching 1.32 million tons. Similarly, sorghum and barley straw maintained low but stable contributions, each consistently under 1 million tons/year. Overall, crop residue generation maintained a steady pattern, with total values oscillating within a narrow range, indicating a relatively reliable feedstock supply for bioenergy applications.

AW data reveals more dramatic shifts. Between 2017 and 2018, total production remained high at around 39 million tons, dominated by cows and buffaloes. However, 2019 marked a sharp decline in AW generation: cows dropped from 18.38 to 11.79 million tons, and buffaloes from 14.46 to 5.99 million tons. This downward trend continued into 2020, possibly due to changes in livestock populations, agricultural economics, or data collection methods. A partial recovery is seen in 2021, with total AW reaching 21.28 million tons, yet still significantly lower than 2017 levels. Camel, goat, and sheep waste showed similar variability but contributed far smaller shares to the total AW stream. Dry sewage sludge, although relatively low in volume compared to crop and animal residues, increased gradually from 2.06 million tons in 2017 to 2.51 million tons in 2021. This indicates progress in wastewater treatment infrastructure and sludge collection. This resource could be more prominent in future waste-to-energy strategies, particularly in urban areas.

MSW shows an interesting pattern. Starting at 28 million tons in 2017, MSW generation increased steadily to 36.60 million tons by 2019, followed by a sharp drop to 27.22 million tons in 2020. This sudden decline may reflect pandemic-related changes in consumption, waste generation patterns, or data collection issues. A slight rebound in 2021 to 27.95 million tons suggests a gradual return to pre-pandemic levels. In summary, the table illustrates Egypt’s substantial BW resources, with crop residues and MSW representing the most stable and voluminous categories. AW, while once dominant, has shown sharp declines, calling for closer investigation. The upward trends in sewage sludge and the fluctuating patterns in MSW highlight both opportunities and challenges for sustainable waste-to-energy strategies. This data underscores the need for adaptive planning and policy to harness these biomass streams efficiently for renewable energy generation.

3.1.1. Municipal Solid Waste

The management of MSW in Egypt continues to face significant obstacles, with the system heavily dependent on uncontrolled landfilling and showing minimal progress in recycling and waste-to-energy practices [15]. WM remains a long-standing environmental concern in the country. It is estimated that around 40% of the total waste produced is not collected. Among the collected waste, only a limited amount is processed and disposed of in facilities that comply with basic environmental standards. The majority is carelessly dumped in open areas, along waterways, roads, railways, and other locations, lacking any proper environmental oversight [10].

Egypt faces significant challenges in its MSW management system, generating approximately 28 million tons of waste annually [14]. Most of this waste is disposed of through open dumping and informal landfills, with limited recycling and composting efforts [10]. Urban areas, particularly Greater Cairo, contribute nearly half of the country’s waste, yet collection rates vary widely, especially in rural regions [48]. The informal sector plays a major role in recycling, while formal waste treatment remains underdeveloped [15]. In comparison, Algeria still relies heavily on dumping, with recent moves toward controlled landfilling [49]. On the other hand, Jordan has made strides in waste collection and landfill management, though recycling remains minimal [50]. Morocco has made the most progress, expanding controlled landfill usage and planning to scale up recycling and recovery facilities, although a large portion of waste is still unmanaged [48]. These countries reflect the broader WM challenges facing the MENA region, underscoring the need for integrated systems, stronger regulations, and public engagement [15]. In contrast, countries like the UAE and Saudi Arabia have invested in modern waste treatment facilities, including waste-to-energy plants and advanced recycling programs [51]. Egypt must adopt integrated WM strategies to improve sustainability, enhance recycling efforts, and invest in advanced waste-to-energy technologies. Egypt can also formulate targeted policies that improve operational efficiency while fostering a culture of sustainability. Embracing technological innovations and launching public awareness campaigns could play a key role in closing the current gaps in Egypt’s MSWM system [48].

In the current study, MSW, which recorded 27.95 million tons in 2021, can be sorted and converted into energy using appropriate technologies based on its composition, as presented in

Table 8. MSW amount and electricity generation for integrated technologies.

Waste Type	Waste Amount (106 Tons/Year)	Technology	Electricity Generation (TWh/Year)	GHG Emissions (106 Tons CO2 eq/Year)
Organic	15.65	Anaerobic digestion	1.78	0.31
Plastic	3.63	Pyrolysis	6.10	1.23
Paper+Textile+Others	6.99	RDF combustion	5.60	2.66
Glass+Metals	1.68	Recycling	-------	-------
Total	27.95	-------	13.48	4.19

. MSW generation in Egypt is a significant environmental challenge due to its large volume and diverse composition. Organic materials, which constitute 56% of the total waste and have around 30% dry matter, can be effectively utilized through anaerobic digestion to produce biogas, reducing GHG emissions while generating renewable energy [15]. Plastics, which account for 13%, pose serious environmental hazards due to their non-biodegradable nature, but they can be managed through pyrolysis, converting them into valuable fuel sources. Paper, textiles, and other waste (25% combined) can be processed into refuse-derived fuel (RDF) for energy recovery through controlled combustion, minimizing landfill waste. Glass (4%) and metals (2%) have strong recycling potential, which, if effectively managed, can conserve natural resources and reduce environmental pollution. Effective waste sorting and recycling programs and implementing advanced or integrated WM strategies such as anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis, RDF combustion, and recycling can maximize resource recovery, reduce environmental impact, and minimize reliance on landfills [48].

Table 8 indicates the integrated technologies’ MSW amount, electricity generation, and GHG emissions. Electricity generation and GHG emissions vary considerably across different waste-to-energy technologies and waste types. Anaerobic digestion, applied to organic waste streams, provides a relatively low-emission option. Processing approximately 15.65 million tons/year of organic waste, it generates about 1.78 TWh/year of electricity while emitting just 0.31 million tons of CO₂ eq gases. This makes it one of the cleanest technologies in terms of emissions per unit of energy produced. On the other hand, pyrolysis applied to plastic waste, with an input of 3.63 million tons/year, yields a significantly higher electricity output of around 6.10 TWh/year. However, this process produces higher emissions, estimated at 1.23 million tons of CO₂ eq annually. Another common approach is the combustion of RDF, which is often derived from paper, textiles, and mixed municipal solid waste. RDF combustion from 6.99 million tons of waste can generate 5.60 TWh/year but is associated with the highest emissions among the three technologies, reaching 2.66 million tons of CO₂ eq annually. These comparisons reveal a clear trade-off between energy efficiency and environmental impact. While pyrolysis and RDF combustion offer higher energy outputs, they have significantly greater emissions. In contrast, anaerobic digestion offers lower energy recovery but is far more environmentally sustainable. Decision-makers must balance energy needs with emission targets when selecting appropriate technologies for WM in Egypt or similar contexts.

Figure 3 illustrates electricity generation from MSW and the associated GHG emissions across various scenarios. As anticipated, the open dumpsite scenario is the least favorable, with the highest annual GHG emissions of 31.05 million tons CO₂ eq, due to uncontrolled decomposition and methane emissions. Policymakers are urged to explore alternative MSW management strategies to safeguard the environment. While the landfill system can produce a significant 10.48 TWh/year of electricity, it generates high GHG emissions (24.60 million tons CO₂ eq/year) compared to incineration (5.51 million tons CO₂ eq/year) or an integrated approach (4.19 million tons CO₂ eq/year). Incineration, while energy-intensive, results in lower emissions due to emission control systems. Incineration demonstrated the highest potential for electricity generation at 14.07 TWh/year, followed closely by the integrated scenario with 13.48 TWh/year. Overall, there is a clear trade-off between energy recovery and environmental impact. Incineration and integrated systems offer better electricity generation with lower emissions than landfilling and dumpsites. These findings suggest that adopting advanced WM technologies can enhance energy efficiency and reduce climate-related impacts, supporting global efforts toward sustainable waste-to-energy solutions.

There is public resistance to waste incinerators in Egypt due to concerns about pollution, health risks, and lack of trust in implementation. To address this, transparency and public education are essential, especially in highlighting how modern technologies operate under strict environmental regulations with advanced emission controls. Engaging communities early, involving local stakeholders, and sharing independent monitoring data can build public confidence. Emphasizing the benefits, such as renewable energy generation, reduced landfill dependency, and job creation, can help shift public perception. Learning from successful international experiences further reinforces the safety and value of adopting waste-to-energy solutions in Egypt.

Despite the severe environmental impact of landfilling, MSW in Egypt is primarily managed through landfill disposal, with 81% ending up in public or random landfills and only 7% in safe landfills [15]. This contributes to increased GHG emissions and climate change. Sanitary landfills decreased from 40 in 2018 to 21 in 2019 as the government closed filled sites and established new ones meeting international standards. The Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs also launched a plan to remove historical waste accumulations, relocate them to controlled sites, and provide financial support for landfill closures [48]. Furthermore, garbage sorting in Egypt is generally insufficient, with only a small percentage of government and private institutions engaged in waste separation compared to the large volume of waste generated [52]. Separation and recycling centers should be established nationwide to maximize waste utilization, promoting effective recycling and reuse. Additionally, non-recyclable waste can be utilized to enhance the supply of raw materials for waste-to-energy projects.

Enhancing WM in Egypt requires investment in infrastructure and technology, as well as allocating a set percentage of national income for sanitary landfills, recycling facilities, and smart waste monitoring systems. Establishing an integrated WM system can unite government authorities, private companies, and civil organizations to improve waste collection, sorting, and recycling. Regular tracking and evaluation of progress will ensure continuous policy improvements. Public awareness campaigns should educate communities on proper waste disposal and recycling benefits, fostering a culture of responsibility. Additionally, integrating informal waste collectors into the formal system and strengthening regulatory frameworks will enhance overall WM efficiency.

3.1.2. Agriculture Crop Residues

Egypt generates significant quantities of agricultural crop residues each year [14]. A small fraction is repurposed for compost, animal feed, or small-scale energy production. A large portion is poorly managed, often discarded through open burning or left to decompose, leading to severe air pollution and environmental damage [4]. This inefficiency stems from weak infrastructure, low awareness, and limited policy support [53]. Recent initiatives under Egypt’s Vision 2030 aim to improve residue utilization through bioenergy and sustainable practices. With proper investment and coordination, crop residues could become valuable for clean energy and environmental conservation. In contrast, Morocco and Algeria produce lower amounts of agricultural waste, primarily utilizing direct combustion for heating and exploring bioethanol production [54,55]. With a smaller agrarian sector, Jordan generates fewer crop residues but has been investing in biogas production from organic waste [56].

Egypt produces over 28 million tons of crop residues annually, primarily from wheat, followed by maize, rice, sugarcane, cotton, sorghum, and barley [14].

Table 9. Electricity generation and GHG emissions from the energy recovery of crop residues through different technologies.

Crop Residue	Energy Potential (PJ/Year)	Electricity Generation (TWh/Year)
		Combustion	Gasification/Pyrolysis	Anaerobic Digestion	Fermentation
Wheat straw	152.26	12.69	9.07	8.73	4.57
Maize stalk	100.69	8.39	6.00	5.78	3.02
Rice straw	66.06	5.51	3.94	3.79	1.98
Sugarcane bagasse	33.65	2.80	2.01	1.93	1.01
Cotton stalks	22.07	2.02	1.32	1.27	0.66
Sorghum straw	10.44	0.87	0.62	0.60	0.31
Barley straw	1.36	0.11	0.08	0.08	0.04
Total energy	386.53	32.40	23.03	22.17	11.60
GHG (106 ton CO2 eq)	32.07	6.63	4.64	3.75	1.86

presents potential energy, electricity generation, and GHG emissions from the energy recovery of crop residues through different technologies. These residues have an estimated energy of 386.53 PJ/year, with approximately 91.24% derived from wheat, maize, rice, and sugarcane residues. Various techniques, such as combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, fermentation, and anaerobic digestion, were evaluated for electricity generation from these residues. Wheat straw offers the highest electricity potential through combustion, producing 12.69 TWh/year. Other processes generate between 4.57 and 9.07 GWh annually. Maize stalks rank second, yielding between 3.02 and 8.39 TWh/year using different methods. Rice straw also provides significant energy potential, generating 5.51 TWh/year through combustion. Residues from other crops can produce 0.04 to 2.80 TWh/year, depending on the technique used.

Direct combustion of crop residues demonstrated the highest electricity generation (32.40 TWh/year), followed by gasification and pyrolysis (23.03 TWh/year), anaerobic digestion (22.17 TWh/year), and fermentation (11.60 TWh/year), aligning with findings from previous studies [29]. These results highlight that thermochemical conversion methods generate more electricity than biochemical methods. This is because thermochemical processes utilize biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic matter, while biochemical processes rely solely on the biodegradable fraction [57]. However, despite its higher energy recovery, combustion produces significantly greater GHG emissions (32.07 million tons CO₂ eq/year) than other methods. Fermentation recorded the lowest emissions (1.86 million tons CO₂ eq/year), followed by anaerobic digestion (3.75 million tons CO₂ eq/year). Consequently, biochemical conversion methods, such as anaerobic digestion and fermentation, are more environmentally friendly than thermochemical methods, including direct combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis, as supported by other studies [33]. The data indicate a trade-off: technologies like combustion maximize energy recovery but emit more GHGs, while fermentation and anaerobic digestion yield less energy but with substantially lower environmental impact. This suggests that technology selection should balance energy needs with climate goals, especially in contexts aiming for low-carbon energy solutions.

When comparing the current results to previous studies, Abdelhady et al. [53] demonstrated that utilizing 10 million tons of crop residues in biomass power plants could generate approximately 11,000 GWh of electricity. This amount represents about 5.5% of Egypt’s electricity production in 2019. Such biomass-based power generation could significantly reduce the reliance on fossil fuels, lower national environmental emissions by up to 2.25 million tons/year of oil equivalent, and cut CO₂ emissions by approximately 3.64 million tons annually. An estimated 12.57 × 10⁶ tons of these residues, mainly sourced from maize stalks, rice straw, sugarcane bagasse, cotton stalks, and agricultural pruning, could yield approximately 189.76 PJ of energy. Said et al. [23] estimated that approximately 12.33 × 10⁶ tons of agricultural residues, originating from sugarcane, rice, maize, sorghum, and cotton crops, hold an energy value of about 185.75 PJ.

3.1.3. Animal Wastes

Egypt and other MENA countries produce substantial AW, which can be converted into bioenergy through anaerobic digestion and biogas production [56,58]. However, the sector faces challenges related to waste collection inefficiencies and a lack of regulatory frameworks. Morocco has advanced biogas production mainly from cattle and sheep manure, while Algeria is exploring biogas generation from cattle waste [58]. Jordan has a high potential for AW, primarily from chickens and cows, and it has implemented waste-to-energy projects, such as the Al Ghabawi landfill biogas plant, which utilizes manure combined with organic waste to enhance methane yield [56].

Egypt has been actively promoting the conversion of AW into biogas to address energy needs and environmental concerns [16]. The country produces substantial livestock manure, a valuable feedstock for biogas production [14]. Small-scale biogas units have been implemented in rural areas, allowing households to utilize animal manure to generate biogas for cooking and heating, thereby reducing reliance on traditional fuels and improving indoor air quality [17]. The Egyptian government has introduced feed-in tariffs to encourage waste-to-energy projects, offering specific rates for energy produced from various waste sources, including AW and biogas [48]. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, such as the need for improved waste collection systems, public awareness, and investment in infrastructure to fully harness the potential of AW for biogas production in Egypt [16].

Table 10. Animal waste, electricity production, and GHG emissions.

Animal Type	Animal Waste (106 Tons/Year)	Electricity Production (TWh/Year)	GHG Emissions (106 kg CO2 eq/Year)
Cows	11.80	0.63	106.20
Buffaloes	5.99	0.32	53.91
Camels	1.74	0.09	14.95
Goats	1.03	0.09	14.73
Sheep	0.71	0.05	8.08
Total	21.28	1.18	197.87

indicates AW and electricity production and GHG emissions from anaerobic digestion of these wastes. Cows produce the highest amount of waste, totaling 11.80 million tons/year, and generate the most electricity, about 0.63 TWh/year. This is accompanied by the highest GHG emissions among all animals, reaching 106.20 million kg CO₂ eq/year. Buffaloes are the second-largest contributors, with 5.99 million tons of waste annually, generating 0.32 TWh/year and emitting 53.91 million kg CO₂ eq. Camels and goats each generate 1.74 and 1.03 million tons of waste annually, respectively. While both contribute modestly to electricity generation at 0.09 TWh/year each, their GHG emissions are significant, with camels producing 14.95 million kg CO₂ eq and goats 14.73 million kg CO₂ eq. Sheep have the lowest contribution, with only 0.71 million tons of waste, 0.05 TWh/year of electricity, and 8.08 million kg CO₂ eq in emissions.

In total, AW across all categories amounts to 21.28 million tons/year, yielding approximately 1.18 TWh/year of electricity and emitting 197.87 million kg CO₂ eq. Despite the relatively low electricity output compared to crop residues, AW remains a viable source of renewable energy, especially in rural or agricultural settings where it is readily available. The data suggest that cows and buffalo are the primary focus for energy recovery due to their larger waste volumes. Comparable findings have been reported in earlier studies. Said et al. [23] estimated that manure from approximately 6.25 million head of cattle in Egypt has around 40.61 PJ of energy.

3.1.4. Sewage Wastes

The management and disposal of municipal wastewater sludge in Egypt is vital to mitigate the risks posed by non-stabilized sludge in land reclamation, reduce significant GHG emissions, and recover valuable resources like renewable energy [21]. In Egypt, sewage sludge presents a promising resource for biogas production due to the large volume of TWW generated annually (approximately 5 billion m³) [14]. Anaerobic digestion is the most applied technology in major WWTPs such as Cairo and Alexandria. Al Gabal Al Asfar WWTP in Cairo treats wastewater from approximately four million residents. This facility employs anaerobic digestion to convert sewage sludge into biogas that is burned in a dedicated combined heat and power unit, generating approximately 12 MW of electricity, covering around 65% of the total electricity demand of the entire WWTP [21]. Similarly, the Alexandria East WWTP has integrated a sewage sludge recovery unit. Bio digestion transforms the sludge into biogas, producing around 6 megawatt-hours (MWh) of electricity. This output covers about half of the plant’s energy requirements, showcasing the potential of biogas in reducing operational costs and environmental impact. Anaerobic co-digestion of sludge with organic waste significantly improves digestion rates and methane recovery compared to conventional methods [19]. This makes it a promising option for retrofitting existing digesters. Egypt’s first full-scale co-digestion plant at the Sakha WWTP in Kafr El-Sheikh processes about 185 tons/day of sludge and organic waste. The plant produces biogas converted to electricity and bio solids sold to farmers [21].

From the analysis of the current study, Egypt’s WWTPs can generate approximately 2512.37 million kg of dry sludge annually. Through anaerobic digestion, this sludge has the potential to produce an estimated 1490 GWh of electricity annually. However, the electricity generation process is associated with GHG emissions of approximately 0.25 million tons of CO₂ eq annually. However, biogas recovery in Egypt is still underutilized compared to its potential. In comparison, Morocco and Algeria have made gradual progress in integrating biogas recovery from sewage sludge. Morocco has initiated pilot projects in cities such as Marrakech, focusing on converting sludge into biogas for electricity generation within treatment plants [59]. Algeria, though still developing in this sector, has included biogas from wastewater in its renewable energy plans, particularly in urban centers [60]. Jordan’s Samra WWTP is a regional example of success, achieving energy self-sufficiency through efficient sludge-to-biogas conversion [56]. Compared to these countries, Egypt still requires stronger policy support, public–private investment, and modernized infrastructure to fully leverage sewage sludge as a renewable energy source [21]. According to the World Biogas Association, on June 2025, the Egyptian government approved a tariff of $0.044 per kilowatt-hour for electricity generated from biogas derived from sewage treatment plants and sanitary landfills. However, given the economic challenges faced by Egypt, other initiatives would help such as community co-ops [61] or military-led projects to establish large-scale biogas plants.

3.2. Energy Contribution and Emissions Mitigation

In Egypt, electricity consumption amounted to 167.50 TWh in 2022; as a result, CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel use during the same period totaled 265.96 million tons [62]. Figure 4 depicts the role of biomass bioenergy in electricity generation and carbon emission reduction in Egypt. The maximum electricity generation from various BW sources is approximately 49.14 TWh/year. This energy is primarily derived from the direct combustion of agricultural crop residues (66%), the incineration of MSW (29%), and the anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge (3%) and AW (2%). According to the carbon emission factor, generating 1 kWh of electricity from BW instead of fossil fuels can mitigate approximately 0.62 kg of CO₂ emissions [63]. Based on this, an estimated 30.47 million tons of CO₂ emissions could be mitigated each year. Utilizing BW for energy minimizes environmental risks associated with waste accumulation, reduces fossil fuel dependence, and helps mitigate CO₂ emissions, supporting efforts to combat global warming and climate change.

3.3. Technological Advancement Impact

Technological progress in biomass conversion processes has significantly improved the efficiency of electricity generation from diverse waste streams. In agriculture, progress in gasification, pyrolysis, and combustion technologies has increased energy yields by refining thermal processes and reducing emissions [64,65]. Enhanced fermentation and anaerobic digestion systems, further optimized by AI models for process control and predictive maintenance, boost biogas production from crop residues [66]. A particularly impactful development is the adoption of anaerobic co-digestion, which involves the simultaneous digestion of multiple organic waste streams, such as crop residues, manure, food waste, and sewage sludge, leading to improved substrate balance, enhanced microbial activity, and significantly higher methane yields compared to mono-digestion systems [67,68,69,70,71,72]. AI also enables real-time monitoring and optimization of digestion parameters, further improving system performance and stability [73,74].

In the MSW sector, modern incinerators with advanced emission control and energy recovery, along with integrated approaches such as plastic pyrolysis, RDF combustion, and anaerobic digestion of organic waste, provide higher quality and more consistent energy outputs [75]. For sewage sludge and animal waste, modular biogas systems offer flexible, decentralized solutions that can be deployed in rural and per urban areas, supported by AI-driven management to enhance output and reliability [19,35,67]. The process of converting biomass waste into electricity involves several critical stages, such as collection, pretreatment, by-product handling, and secondary pollution control, that significantly influence the overall energy efficiency and environmental impact of the system. These steps vary depending on the type of biomass used; for example, crop residues may require drying and shredding, animal waste often undergoes slurry preparation, and municipal organic waste demands sorting and decontamination. Technological advances in each stage have improved process efficiency and reduced emissions. Addressing these upstream and downstream factors makes the biomass-to-energy pathway more viable and sustainable. This process contributes to national energy resilience and environmental stewardship when integrated with a closed-cycle economy approach, emphasizing resource recovery, local reuse, and circular value chains. To ensure long-term operational and ecological sustainability, it is recommended that future studies incorporate life cycle assessments to comprehensively evaluate energy inputs, GHG emissions, and environmental trade-offs across the entire biomass conversion chain.

To further advance renewable energy goals, alternative models are essential to support the progress of renewable energy initiatives. Community cooperatives provide a decentralized approach by engaging local stakeholders in the funding and managing projects, encouraging community ownership, and generating employment [76]. Simultaneously, military-led initiatives offer an effective means to deliver large-scale infrastructure projects, leveraging their organizational strength and efficiency. These models provide viable solutions to financial and administrative challenges while contributing to national sustainability objectives.

4. Conclusions

Harnessing bioenergy from BW presents a significant opportunity for Egypt to meet its energy demands, improve WM, and advance environmental sustainability. This study examines the potential for electricity generation from various types of BW using diverse energy conversion technologies. It evaluates the reduction in carbon emissions achieved by replacing fossil fuels with bioenergy. The results show that biomass sources have a maximum electricity generation of approximately 49.14 TWh/year. This energy can primarily be derived from the direct combustion of agricultural crop residues (66%), incineration of MSW (29%), and anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge (3%) and AW (2%). Additionally, substituting fossil fuels with bioenergy could prevent up to 30.47 million tons of CO₂ emissions annually. Therefore, utilizing BW for energy reduces waste that poses environmental hazards, lessens dependence on fossil fuels, and mitigates CO₂ emissions, contributing to global efforts to address climate change and global warming. Such an approach enables the shift towards a closed-cycle economy, supporting Egypt’s aims to diversify its energy mix, with a target of a 10% reduction of GHG emissions. Such endeavors contribute to various United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and fit within the national agenda, Egypt Vision 2030, and regional agenda, Africa 2063.

Future work should emphasize integrating a closed-cycle economy by linking waste-to-energy infrastructure, recycling-based job creation, and circular value chains to advance Egypt’s regional development and sustainability objectives. To support this, future studies are encouraged to include comprehensive life cycle assessments of biomass-to-energy systems. This will provide a clearer understanding of environmental sustainability and system efficiency. Such insights are essential for informed decision-making in Egypt’s renewable energy planning. Ultimately, this approach fosters long-term resilience and responsible resource management.