Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Greywater Treatment and Rainwater Harvesting for Decentralized Water Reuse in Brazil and Germany
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of Scenarios
2.2. LCSA Framework
2.3. Environmental LCA
2.4. Life Cycle Costing
2.5. Social-LCA
2.6. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis
2.7. Limitations
3. Results
3.1. Environmental LCA Results
3.2. Life Cycle Costing Results
3.3. Social-LCA Results
3.4. Sustainability Score
3.5. Sensitivity Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
CAPEX | Capital expenditure |
CFt | Net cash flow during the period t |
CIS | Composite index score |
CW | Constructed wetlands |
DCB | Dichlorobenzene (used in toxicity metrics) |
EXT | Externalities |
FU | Functional unit |
GW | Greywater |
GWP | Global warming potential |
HCT | Human carcinogenic toxicity |
HNT | Human non-carcinogenic toxicity |
IPTU | Imposto Predial e Territorial Urbano (Property Tax—Brazil) |
LCA | Life Cycle Assessment |
LCC | Life Cycle Costing |
LCIA | Life cycle impact assessment |
LCSA | Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment |
MCDA | Multi-criteria decision analysis |
MEU | Marine eutrophication |
NBS | Nature-based solution |
NPV | Net present value |
OPEX | Operational expenditure |
OSS | Overall sustainability score |
RW | Rainwater |
S-LCA | Social Life Cycle Assessment |
SDG | Sustainable Development Goal |
TEC | Terrestrial ecotoxicity |
TAC | Terrestrial acidification |
WWTP | Wastewater treatment plant |
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Case Study | Scenario | Description |
---|---|---|
1 | 1a | Multi-dwelling building in Stuttgart, Germany, integrating a vertical-flow CW (VFCW) with an RW harvesting system that serves multiple reuse purposes, including the automated irrigation of a vertical garden. The VFCW spans 5 m2 and is divided into two parallel beds for efficient GW treatment. Additionally, a 7 m3 RW cistern is utilized for long-term storage, with an additional 4 m3 retention volume for temporary water storage. The CW is designed to attend 10 people [24,25]. |
1b | Benchmark scenario assuming potable water is supplied through the public municipal piped system and GW is discharged together with blackwater into a centralized sewer network. The combined wastewater is conveyed to and treated at a centralized WWTP, with the final effluent released into receiving water bodies. | |
2 | 2a | In the German rural community of Reinighof, a self-sufficient single-dwelling includes a CW for GW treatment and an RW harvesting cistern repurposed from a deactivated septic tank system, with a storage volume of 25 m3 for irrigation purposes. Treated GW is conveyed into an evaporation pond due to local restrictions [26]. This system serves a population of max. 16 people. |
2b | Benchmark scenario representing groundwater abstraction via a well, with raw sewage temporarily collected in a holding tank and transported 10 km by truck to a centralized WWTP, where it is treated and discharged. This setup reflects rural baseline practices in the absence of local treatment infrastructure and is also constrained by local discharge restrictions that prohibit direct release into the environment. | |
3 | 3a | Brazilian single-dwelling with 204 m2 built area. The EvaTAC system [27,28], a modified CW with an anaerobic chamber, has been operating for over 10 years, treating about 250 L of GW per day. The system also includes a 5 m3 cistern for water storage, enabling water reuse for toilet flushing, cleaning, and irrigation purposes. This system attends three people. |
3b | Benchmark scenario assuming potable water is supplied through the public municipal piped system and GW is discharged together with blackwater into a centralized sewer network. The combined wastewater is conveyed to and treated at a centralized WWTP, with the final effluent released into receiving water bodies. | |
4 | 4a | A 19-story residential building in Brazil which features RW harvesting from a 520 m2 roof, stored in a 20 m3 cistern. GW is treated using the EvaTAC system, with a projected daily flow of 16 m3. The estimated population served by this system comprises 152 people. |
4b | Benchmark scenario assuming potable water is supplied through the public municipal piped system and GW is discharged together with blackwater into a centralized sewer network. The combined wastewater is conveyed to and treated at a centralized WWTP, with the final effluent released into receiving water bodies. |
Description | Scale Level |
---|---|
Ideal performance | +2 |
Progress beyond compliance | +1 |
Compliance with local laws | 0 |
Non-compliant situation, improving | −1 |
No data, or non-compliant situation | −2 |
Dimension | Indicator | Acronym | Direction | Data Type | Unit |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Environmental | Global warming potential | GWP | Negative | Quantitative | kg CO2 eq. |
Terrestrial acidification | TAC | Negative | Quantitative | kg SO2 eq. | |
Freshwater eutrophication | FEU | Negative | Quantitative | kg P eq. | |
Marine eutrophication | MEU | Negative | Quantitative | kg N eq. | |
Terrestrial ecotoxicity | TEC | Negative | Quantitative | kg 1,4-DCB | |
Freshwater ecotoxicity | FEC | Negative | Quantitative | kg 1,4-DCB | |
Marine ecotoxicity | MEC | Negative | Quantitative | kg 1,4-DCB | |
Human carcinogenic toxicity | HCT | Negative | Quantitative | kg 1,4-DCB | |
Human non-carcinogenic toxicity | HNT | Negative | Quantitative | kg 1,4-DCB | |
Economic | Net present value | NPV | Positive | Quantitative | Euro (EUR) |
Externalities | EXT | Negative | Quantitative | Euro (EUR) | |
Social | Health and safety (end-user) | HSA | Positive | Qualitative | - |
Expertise required (workers) | COM | Positive | Qualitative | - | |
Access to material resources (local community) | AMR | Positive | Qualitative | - | |
Local employment (local community) | LEM | Positive | Qualitative | - | |
Public commitments to sustainability issues (society) | PCS | Positive | Qualitative | - | |
Technology development (society) | TDE | Positive | Qualitative | - |
Sensitivity Analysis Alternative | Environmental | Social | Economic |
---|---|---|---|
Baseline comparison | 1 | 1 | 1 |
i | 2 | 1 | 1 |
ii | 1 | 2 | 1 |
iii | 1 | 1 | 2 |
Scenario | Costs with Water and Wastewater Tariffs (EUR/p.y) |
---|---|
1b | 887.23 |
2b * | 1628.91 |
3b | 761.76 |
4b | 761.76 |
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Share and Cite
Souza, H.H.d.S.; Morandi, C.G.; Boncz, M.Á.; Paulo, P.L.; Steinmetz, H. Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Greywater Treatment and Rainwater Harvesting for Decentralized Water Reuse in Brazil and Germany. Resources 2025, 14, 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14060096
Souza HHdS, Morandi CG, Boncz MÁ, Paulo PL, Steinmetz H. Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Greywater Treatment and Rainwater Harvesting for Decentralized Water Reuse in Brazil and Germany. Resources. 2025; 14(6):96. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14060096
Chicago/Turabian StyleSouza, Hugo Henrique de Simone, Carlo Gottardo Morandi, Marc Árpád Boncz, Paula Loureiro Paulo, and Heidrun Steinmetz. 2025. "Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Greywater Treatment and Rainwater Harvesting for Decentralized Water Reuse in Brazil and Germany" Resources 14, no. 6: 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14060096
APA StyleSouza, H. H. d. S., Morandi, C. G., Boncz, M. Á., Paulo, P. L., & Steinmetz, H. (2025). Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Greywater Treatment and Rainwater Harvesting for Decentralized Water Reuse in Brazil and Germany. Resources, 14(6), 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14060096