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Review

Eco-Friendly, Biomass-Derived Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices

by
Yeong-Seok Oh
1,†,
Seung Woo Seo
1,†,
Jeong-jin Yang
2,†,
Moongook Jeong
2,* and
Seongki Ahn
1,*
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Research Center of Chemical Technology, Hankyong National University, 27, Jungangro, Anseong-si 17579, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
2
Research Organization for Nano and Life Innovation, Waseda University, 3-4-1, Okubo, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Coatings 2025, 15(8), 915; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15080915 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 24 June 2025 / Revised: 10 July 2025 / Accepted: 16 July 2025 / Published: 5 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Engineering for Advanced Applications in Electronics and Energy)
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Abstract

This mini-review emphasizes the potential of biomass-derived materials as sustainable components for next-generation electrochemical energy storage systems. Biomass obtained from abundant and renewable natural resources can be transformed into carbonaceous materials. These materials typically possess hierarchical porosities, adjustable surface functionalities, and inherent heteroatom doping. These physical and chemical characteristics provide the structural and chemical flexibility needed for various electrochemical applications. Additionally, biomass-derived materials offer a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to traditional components, promoting green chemistry and circular resource utilization. This review provides a systematic overview of synthesis methods, structural design strategies, and material engineering approaches for their use in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs), and supercapacitors (SCs). It also highlights key challenges in these systems, such as the severe volume expansion of anode materials in LIBs and the shuttle effect in LSBs and discusses how biomass-derived carbon can help address these issues.

1. Introduction

With the rapidly increasing global demand for clean and sustainable energy, significant research has focused on various electrochemical energy storage systems, such as batteries, capacitors, thermal energy storage devices, and chemical energy storage systems. Among these, this mini review focuses exclusively on batteries and capacitors. In the battery section, particular attention is given to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), which represent the current commercial standard, and lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs), one of the most promising next-generation systems [1,2,3]. In particular, the global LIBs market is experiencing robust growth, with an estimated size of USD 97.88 billion in 2024 and projected to reach USD 499.31 billion by 2034, reflecting a compound annual growth rate of 17.69% from 2025 to 2034 [4]. These systems are essential for integrating renewable energy and achieving electrified transportation, necessitating high energy and power densities, extended cycle life, and environmental compatibility.
Biomass-derived materials have found extensive use in energy storage systems due to their exceptional electrical conductivity, surface functional groups, chemical stability, high specific surface area, and favorable pore structure [5,6,7]. The battery industry’s rapid expansion has led to a growing focus on resource recycling and sustainable material development. The utilization of biomass-derived materials has become a promising approach in the energy materials sector to encourage the circular utilization of natural resources and minimize waste production [8,9].
Biomass-derived materials offer a unique combination of sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and structural versatility. Natural precursors, such as wood, agricultural residues, and various plant-based wastes, can be converted into functional materials with high surface areas, hierarchical porosities, and abundant surface functional groups [10,11,12,13,14]. These features significantly enhance electrochemical performance by promoting ion transport, buffering volume changes, and facilitating redox reactions [15,16]. This mini-review comprehensively examines recent research trends in the synthesis and application of biomass-derived materials in LIBs, LSBs, and supercapacitors. The focus is on the functional contributions of the structural characteristics and electrochemical performance of these materials to device performance. Additionally, technical challenges associated with the utilization of biomass-based materials are discussed, and future research directions are suggested to maximize the potential of these materials for next-generation energy storage technologies.

2. Biomass-Derived Carbon

Biomass-derived carbon materials have long garnered attention for electrochemical energy storage applications due to their sustainability, renewability, and structural tunability. A diverse array of biomass precursors such as wood [17], bamboo [18], coconut shells [19], rice husks [20], and corn stalks [21] has been employed to produce porous carbons with advantageous features, including high surface area and hierarchical pore structures. Beyond agricultural residues, industrial byproducts and waste biomass are also being actively explored as alternative carbon sources, highlighting the versatility and broad accessibility of this approach.
The main synthetic methods for converting biomass into carbon materials include carbonization and activation. Carbonization typically involves thermal treatment under an inert atmosphere, which converts biomass into carbon while preserving its structural features and achieving high carbon yield. Activation, either chemical (e.g., KOH and H3PO4) [22,23,24] or physical (e.g., CO2 and steam) [25,26], is employed to develop porous structures and increase the specific surface area, thereby enhancing ion transport and electrochemical performance. Various activated carbons derived from different biomass precursors, along with their specific surface areas, are summarized in Table 1.
In addition to these synthesis steps, heteroatom doping, often performed as a post-treatment, can be applied to tailor the surface chemistry of carbon materials. Incorporating elements such as nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), or phosphorus (P) improves surface charge density, wettability, and redox reactivity, thereby further enhancing electrochemical performance [27,28,29].
Biomass-derived carbon materials synthesized using these methods exhibit notable structural characteristics, including a high specific surface area, hierarchical porosity, and abundant surface functional groups. The increased surface area improves contact with active materials, thereby enhancing charge storage capacity [30]. Hierarchical pore structures facilitate efficient electrolyte penetration and rapid ion transport [31]. Additionally, surface functional groups (e.g., −OH and −COOH) improve wettability and interfacial stability between the electrode and electrolyte, thereby enhancing electrochemical efficiency and long-term durability [32]. These benefits position biomass-derived carbon materials as highly promising for next-generation high-performance electrochemical energy storage devices.

3. Application

3.1. LIBs

One of the main obstacles to the commercialization of LIBs is the significant volume expansion of anode materials during charge–discharge cycles [33,34,35,36,37,38,39]. Overcoming this challenge necessitates the creation of anode materials with strong structural stability and exceptional electrochemical performance. This section focuses on the unique characteristics of carbon materials derived from biomass and reviews recent research endeavors that have employed these materials as advanced anodes to address these limitations.
Wang et al. synthesized nitrogen-doped pseudo-graphitized porous carbon (NPC) by ball milling a mixture of Chlorella and oyster shell powder, followed by high-temperature carbonization [40] (Figure 1a). Among the prepared samples, NPC13 exhibited a high specific surface area and a well-developed porous structure, identified as nitrogen-rich pseudo-graphitized carbon (Figure 1b,c). The improved electrochemical performance was attributed to the inorganic components in the oyster shells, which facilitated the formation of pseudo-graphitic domains during carbonization, as well as nitrogen doping, which enhanced electrical conductivity and lithium-ion diffusion. Consequently, NPC13 delivered a high reversible capacity of 1384.9 mAh g−1 after 150 cycles at 0.1 A g−1 and retained an impressive capacity of 737.6 mAh g−1 over 1000 cycles at 1.0 A g−1, demonstrating outstanding long-term cycling stability (Figure 1d). Although this study does not explicitly address volume expansion in anode materials, the structural and compositional characteristics of NPC13, including enhanced conductivity, porous architecture, and improved structural integrity, are inherently beneficial in mitigating mechanical stress and instability associated with volume changes during cycling. Consequently, this work contributes significantly to the broader goal of developing robust anode materials for LIBs.
Zhai et al. anchored SnO2 nanosheets on a biomass-derived carbon substrate synthesized by carbonizing and activating discarded disposable bamboo chopsticks (DBC) [41] (Figure 1e). The resulting DBC-based carbon features a three-dimensional hierarchical porous structure with excellent electrical conductivity. The SnO2 nanosheets, characterized by small particle size and large surface area, effectively reduced the lithium-ion diffusion paths and provided numerous active sites to enhance electrochemical activity. Additionally, the conductive carbon matrix promotes electrolyte penetration, ensures efficient electron transport, and effectively mitigates the volume expansion of SnO2 during cycling (Figure 1f,g). Notably, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) confirmed that the SnO2 loading in the composite was 60.8 wt%, indicating a high active material content while preserving the structural integrity of the electrode. Owing to these synergistic structural and physicochemical properties, the SnO2@AC composite exhibited a high initial capacity of 1182.5 mAh g−1 at 0.1 A g−1 and maintained a remarkable reversible capacity of 570.5 mAh g−1 after 500 cycles at 0.5 A g−1 (Figure 1h).
While the previous study demonstrated the use of biomass-derived carbon as a structural scaffold for anchoring active materials, other strategies have employed these carbons as conductive additives or framework components in composite electrodes. Ge et al. synthesized carbonized pine needles (CPNs) by activating pine needles with KCl, followed by thermal treatment [42] (Figure 2a). The CPNs possess a three-dimensional hierarchical porous structure enriched with nitrogen dopants and diverse functional groups. This architecture effectively suppressed the aggregation of the conductive additive acetylene black (AB) and promoted intimate contact with the active material, thereby facilitating efficient lithium-ion and electron transport within the electrode (Figure 2b). Additionally, nitrogen doping and surface functionalities provide additional active sites for lithium storage, enhancing the electrochemical reactivity of the electrode. Consequently, the electrode incorporating CPNs as conductive additives delivered a high initial reversible capacity of 192.3 mAh g−1 at a current rate of 0.5 C and exhibited excellent rate capability and stable capacity retention under various C-rate conditions (Figure 2c,d). These results demonstrate the superior electrochemical performance of the CPN-based electrode compared to that of commercial carbon additives.

3.2. LSBs

In the quest for global carbon neutrality, there is a growing need for advanced battery technologies that offer high energy density, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability. Among various next-generation energy storage systems, LSBs have emerged as promising candidates due to their exceptionally high theoretical energy density of approximately 2600 Wh kg−1, the abundant availability and low toxicity of sulfur, and the potential for cost-effective, scalable manufacturing. These advantages position LSBs as appealing solutions for high-performance applications like electric vehicles, aviation, and grid-scale storage [43,44,45].
To enable high performance, LSBs function through a distinctive redox mechanism that converts elemental sulfur to lithium sulfide. When discharging, lithium ions move from the lithium metal anode across the electrolyte and combine with sulfur at the cathode to produce Li2S. Meanwhile, electrons flow through the external circuit to finalize the electrochemical process. However, despite this advantageous mechanism, the practical implementation of LSBs faces various significant challenges [46,47,48].
First, sulfur and its reduction products (Li2S2/Li2S) are electrically insulating, resulting in poor sulfur utilization and slow reaction kinetics. Second, intermediate lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) formed during cycling are highly soluble in ether-based electrolytes and can migrate to the anode, causing the “shuttle effect.” This phenomenon not only leads to irreversible loss of the active material but also results in significant capacity fading, low Coulombic efficiency, and limited cycle life [49,50,51]. Third, lithium metal anodes face challenges such as uncontrolled dendritic growth and the formation of dead lithium, which pose serious safety concerns. Several strategies have been suggested to tackle these issues, including designing conductive sulfur host materials, using catalytic interlayers, employing functional binders, and implementing advanced separators to restrict LiPSs migration and stabilize the lithium interface [52,53,54,55].
In this context, carbon materials derived from biomass have attracted increasing attention as sustainable and multifunctional LSBs components. Biomass serves as a renewable and cost-effective carbon source that can undergo thermochemical conversion to produce heteroatom-doped porous carbon with a high surface area, a tunable pore structure, and abundant surface functionalities [5,56,57]. These properties highlight the potential of biomass-derived carbon as a multifunctional material for LSBs.
This chapter focuses solely on the utilization of biomass-derived carbon materials in LSBs. We categorized and analyzed their functions in two main areas: (i) biomass-derived sulfur host materials, which enhance conductivity and LiPSs retention, and (ii) biomass-based functional binders, which enhance electrode integrity and ion transport. We investigated the material structures, synthesis methods, and electrochemical performance for each category, emphasizing the existing challenges and future prospects for achieving practical LSB systems.

3.2.1. Sulfur Host Materials

The outstanding electrical conductivity of porous carbon facilitates electron transport between sulfur and its discharge product (Li2S), promoting redox reactions and enhancing the electrochemical activity of the cathode. Its high specific surface area and well-developed pore structure enable the uniform dispersion of sulfur, crucial for achieving high sulfur loading [58,59,60]. The porous framework provides a mechanical buffer to accommodate the substantial volume expansion of sulfur during charge–discharge cycles. Furthermore, dissolved LiPSs can be physically confined within a porous matrix and chemically immobilized via surface functional groups or heteroatom doping, effectively suppressing the shuttle effect [61,62,63]. These multifunctional characteristics position porous carbon as a promising host material for LSBs, actively explored to enhance overall performance. Bai et al. synthesized WF-CNTs by combining a wood-derived biomass carbon framework (WF) with carbon nanotubes; a schematic illustration of the synthesis process of WF-CNT electrodes is shown in Figure 3a [64]. To comprehensively investigate the impact of different temperatures on material morphology, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analyses were conducted (Figure 3b). The porous structure of the WF remained largely unchanged across all samples, irrespective of the temperature conditions during fabrication. The WF-CNT sample featured uniform, parallel channels with a diameter of 8–16 µm, offering potential electron transfer pathways within the anode and significantly increasing the specific surface area. This enhancement enabled the incorporation of up to 10 mg cm−2 of sulfur into the composite material, effectively mitigating the shuttle effect of LiPs during battery operation.
Xu et al. proposed a straightforward and scalable synthetic approach to enhance the performance of sulfur cathodes by incorporating multiwalled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) into biomass-derived hierarchical porous carbon (HPC) for subsequent sulfur loading [65]. The researchers utilized a wet milling process to blend CNTs with polysaccharides and then integrated the CNTs into the HPC via an annealing process to produce CNT@HPC composites, as shown in Figure 3c. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed a prominent graphite peak at 26.28° in the CNT@HPC sample, while Raman spectroscopy exhibited a noticeable trend toward graphitization. A comparison of the Raman spectra between HPC and CNT@HPC exhibited a reduction in the ID–IG ratio for CNT@HPC, suggesting a more ordered crystalline structure with less carbon disorder. Thus, the successful graphitization of CNT@HPC was clearly demonstrated by the XRD and Raman analyses. Additionally, both HPC and CNT@HPC exhibit hierarchically porous structures with large specific surface areas (808 m2 g−1 for HPC and 1003 m2 g−1 for CNT@HPC). They also possess high cumulative pore volumes (~0.83 cm3 g−1), as confirmed by nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms and NLDFT analysis. These analyses reveal the presence of micropores (~0.55 nm), mesopores (~4 nm), and macropores (>30 nm) (Figure 3d). The balanced structural design of these carbon substrates contributed to the effective capture of active sulfur within the cathode and provided a highly efficient pathway for electron transfer, thereby increasing the conductivity and structural integrity of the cathode. Consequently, the sulfur cathode provides an initial discharge capacity of 1739 mAh g−1, achieves a high initial coulombic efficiency of 87.6%, and maintains an efficiency of over 97.5% from cycle 2.
Xiao et al. utilized a straightforward approach that combined hydrothermal and calcination processes to create hierarchical porous and nitrogen-doped carbon from biomass pomelo shells. This carbon material was designed to act as a sulfur host to enhance the performance of LSBs. Figure 3e shows a schematic of the synthesis process for porous carbon–sulfur composites [66]. The method offers several advantages: (i) pomelo shells serve as a readily available and eco-friendly source of biomass-derived carbon; (ii) the incorporation of nitrogen doping, derived from the various biocomponents of pomelo shells and urea treatment, enhances the chemical adsorption of LiPSs; (iii) the hierarchical porous structure allows for high sulfur loading and effectively accommodates volume changes during cycling; and (iv) the synthesis process is both simple and cost-effective, making it suitable for large-scale production. In Figure 3f, the cycling and rate performances of LSBs employing pomelo-shell-derived porous carbon–sulfur composites as the cathode (PCKH/S) are presented. The PCKH/S composite demonstrates a discharge capacity of 1534.6 mAh g−1 and maintains a high coulombic efficiency exceeding 98% at 0.2 C after 300 cycles. Furthermore, the PCKH/S electrode consistently exhibits a higher specific capacity compared to other electrodes as the current rate escalates from 0.1 to 0.2, 0.5, 1, and 2 C, with specific capacities of 1523.0, 1188.6, 1011.3, 781.5, and 668.1 mAh g−1, respectively. These outcomes can be attributed to the PCKH host material, which promotes the reversible reaction of reactive sulfur by impeding the shuttling effect.

3.2.2. Biomass-Based Functional Binders

The development of multifunctional polymer binders has become a key strategy for enhancing the performance of LSBs due to their cost-effectiveness, ease of processing, and ability to maintain electrode integrity. Polymer binders, although present in small quantities, play a vital role in ensuring the cohesion of active materials, conductive agents, and current collectors in LSB electrodes, thereby enabling stable ionic and electronic transport pathways. A widely used binder in commercial LIBs is polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) because of its exceptional electrochemical stability. However, its effectiveness in LSBs is suboptimal [67,68]. PVDF primarily forms weak physical interactions with LiPSs, limiting its capacity to mitigate shuttle effects, a critical concern that results in active-material loss and rapid capacity degradation. Moreover, PVDF necessitates processing with N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), a toxic and environmentally hazardous solvent. The high-temperature drying process needed to eliminate the NMP can lead to the evaporation of sulfur species, reducing the active material content in the final electrode [69,70]. Therefore, there is a need to develop advanced polymer binders tailored specifically for Li–S systems. These binders should not only offer mechanical strength and flexibility but also possess the necessary chemical functionalities to trap LiPSs and hinder their diffusion [71,72,73].
Wen et al. developed an environmentally friendly polymer binder (LA-GA). The operational mechanism of the LA-GA binder is illustrated in Figure 4a, demonstrating exceptional self-healing capability and strong adhesion through the incorporation of dynamic disulfide (S–S) bonds with abundant polar functional groups [74]. The LA and GA components offer multiple carboxyl groups that facilitate robust chemical anchoring to LiPSs, effectively mitigating the shuttle effect during cycling. Furthermore, the dynamic disulfide linkages confer self-healing properties to the binder through reversible bond breakage and reformation. The LA-GA polymer film displayed high tensile strength (0.42 MPa) and elongation at break (560%), indicating its durability and flexibility. Cyclic tensile testing under an 80% strain revealed that despite gradual hysteresis loss, the polymer recovered up to 97% of its original tensile strength after resting for six hours without external stimuli (Figure 4b). This remarkable self-recovery behavior was attributed to the synergistic effect of dynamic S–S bonds, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interactions. Additionally, the 180° peel test showed an average peel force of 1.43 N for the LA-GA cathode, underscoring the role of pyrogallol groups in enhancing adhesive strength. These results indicate that the LA-GA binder not only immobilizes LiPSs effectively and provides mechanical resilience but also preserves the structural integrity of the sulfur cathode during repeated cycling (Figure 4c). Consequently, the LA-GA binder exhibited favorable cycling stability, retaining 81.9% of its capacity when tested at 0.2 C for 100 cycles. Moreover, the long-term cycling performance was satisfactory, with a capacity decline rate of 0.0469% per cycle over 700 cycles at 1.0 C.
Ma et al. developed a new RB binder by combining ramie gum (RG) and boric acid; the synthesis pathway is illustrated in Figure 4d [75]. The RB binder can be manufactured simply without the use of toxic organic solvents or costly chemicals, making it an eco-friendly and cost-effective binding material. It effectively mitigated the volume expansion of the sulfur anode during cycling and enhanced the structural stability of the electrode by facilitating the migration of lithium ions to boost the kinetics of the electrode reaction. Consequently, the RB binder was utilized in an actual lithium–sulfur battery system to assess its efficacy in preventing dendrite formation at the lithium metal cathode. SEM analysis revealed that prior to cycling, the lithium surface was notably flat and smooth; however, post-cycling, a considerable amount of dendrites developed on the lithium surface in the S@PVDF-based cells, increasing the risk of breaching the separator and raising safety concerns. Conversely, in the S@RB-based cells, dendrite formation was markedly suppressed, even after extended operation, affirming the effectiveness of the binder composition in inhibiting dendrites. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy (AFM) analysis indicated that the root-mean-square roughness (Rq) of the RB binder was 26.2 nm, significantly lower than that of the PVDF binder (57 nm) (Figure 4e). These findings suggest that the RB binder can effectively suppress the shuttle effect of LiPs, thereby reducing dendrite growth on the lithium anode surface and enhancing cell safety.

3.3. Supercapacitors

SCs are emerging as next-generation energy storage devices that bridge the performance gap between traditional capacitors and batteries. SCs are suitable solutions for various applications due to their high power density (103–105 W/kg), short charge and discharge times, long cycle life (hundreds of thousands to millions of cycles), and excellent reliability [76,77]. These characteristics are evident in the Ragone plot (Figure 5a), which classifies the performance of energy storage devices based on their power and energy densities [78]. SCs have lower energy density than batteries but significantly higher power density, making them advantageous for applications requiring instant power delivery. SCs are broadly classified into electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), pseudocapacitors, and hybrid supercapacitors (HSCs) based on their operating principles (Figure 5b) [79]. EDLCs store energy through electrostatic charge accumulation at the electrode–electrolyte interface without involving charge transfer reactions. In contrast, pseudocapacitors utilize fast and reversible Faradaic redox reactions to achieve higher specific capacitance. HSCs integrate both electrostatic and Faradaic mechanisms, combining the advantages of EDLCs and pseudocapacitors to enhance both energy and power densities. In particular, biomass-derived carbon materials have attracted significant attention as SC electrodes due to their inherently large specific surface areas, which facilitate efficient charge accumulation and enhanced electrochemical performance [80,81].
This chapter offers a comprehensive overview of recent research trends, technical challenges, and future prospects for supercapacitors, with a specific focus on the utilization of biomass-based carbon materials as electrode materials for SCs.
EDLCs store and release energy by adsorbing and desorbing ions from the electrode surface. The capacitance (C) of an EDLC is directly proportional to the specific surface area (A) of the electrode material, as defined by the equation C = εA/d. Since the dielectric constant (ε) and the ion–electrode distance (d) remain relatively constant, maximizing the surface area is crucial to enhance EDLC performance [82,83]. You et al. demonstrated that Miscanthus-based biochar (BC) serves as an effective electrode material for EDLCs [84]. Pyrolyzed BC possesses a naturally porous structure inherited from plant cell architecture, leading to a high surface area. To further enhance this characteristic, KOH activation was utilized, significantly enhancing porosity and specific surface area. Consequently, the activated BC displayed a significantly larger surface area compared to traditional petrochemical-based precursors. EDLCs constructed with this material achieved a capacitance of 110.8 F g−1 at a scan rate of 0.05 V s−1 and 65.4 F g−1 at a current density of 1 A g−1. The preparation and application procedures are depicted in Figure 6a.
Hao et al. prepared activated carbon using waste sugar residue obtained by drying waste sugar solutions [85]. The synthesis process involved a two-step carbonization method followed by chemical activation using KOH as the activator. Various preparation parameters were systematically investigated, including carbonization temperature, activation temperature, activation ratio, and activation time, to optimize the electrochemical performance of activated carbon. The optimal conditions were identified as a carbonization temperature of 600 °C, an activation temperature of 700 °C, a KOH-to-char mass ratio of 3:1, and an activation time of 2.5 h, denoted as AC-600-700-3-2.5. Under these conditions, the activated carbon achieved a specific surface area of 1953 m2 g−1. Among the tested samples, AC-600-700-3-2.5 exhibited the highest specific capacitance of 273.31 F g−1, determined from the slopes of the galvanostatic discharge curves and the area under the cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves. Although the specific capacitance of all samples decreased with increasing current density, AC-600-700-3-2.5 showed the smallest decline, indicating its superior rate capability. Furthermore, the CV curves showed no visible redox peaks even at various scan rates, suggesting typical EDLC behavior (Figure 6b).
HSCs are a new type of energy storage devices designed to function as an EDLC on one side and a pseudocapacitors on the other, depending on the electrode configuration. By simultaneously utilizing the charge storage method based on the electrostatic bilayer formation of EDLCs and the electrochemical storage mechanism based on the fast and reversible oxidation-reduction reaction of pseudocapacitors, hybrid supercapacitors can maximize energy storage efficiency. This dual mechanism provides energy and power densities superior to those of a single supercapacitor, making hybrid supercapacitors a promising alternative for high-efficiency energy storage systems [86,87,88].
Wang et al. synthesized a CoNi2S4@NiCo-layered double hydroxide/biomass carbon (CoNi2S4@NiCo-LDH/BC) heterostructure to improve electrochemical performance [89]. As shown in Figure 6c, NiCo-LDH nanosheets grew uniformly on a conductive scaffold of activated hollow tubular biomass carbon. A CoNi2S4@NiCo-LDH/BC heterostructure, resembling islands, was created via a partial in situ sulfonation process, enhancing the electronic structure, electrical conductivity, and ion adsorption. For practical evaluation, a hybrid supercapacitor was constructed using CoNi2S4@NiCo-LDH/BC as the positive electrode and CoNi2S4@NiCo-LDH/AC as the negative electrode in a 2 M KOH electrolyte (Figure 6d). The device demonstrated excellent cycling stability, maintaining 95.16% of its capacity after 10,000 charge–discharge cycles at a current density of 20 A g−1, with a coulombic efficiency close to 100%. Furthermore, two such devices connected in series effectively powered a 3.0 V blue LED for up to 60 minutes, with consistent brightness even after prolonged cycling (Figure 6e).
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Figure 6. (a) Schematic of EDLC using Miscanthus-derived biocarbon. Copyright 2018, ACS Publications [84]. (b) Electrochemical characterization of porous carbons from waste sugar residue via GCD curves, CV curves, and capacitance measurements. Copyright 2017, Elsevier [85]. (c) Schematic of the synthesis process of CoN12S4@NiCo-LDH/BC. (d) Schematic diagram of the CoN12S4@NiCo-LDH/BC//AC HSC. (e) Cycling stability of the HSC device at 20 A g−1 (the inset shows the photographs of LED lit up by the two HSC devices connected in series before and after cycles). Copyright 2024, Wiley [89].
Figure 6. (a) Schematic of EDLC using Miscanthus-derived biocarbon. Copyright 2018, ACS Publications [84]. (b) Electrochemical characterization of porous carbons from waste sugar residue via GCD curves, CV curves, and capacitance measurements. Copyright 2017, Elsevier [85]. (c) Schematic of the synthesis process of CoN12S4@NiCo-LDH/BC. (d) Schematic diagram of the CoN12S4@NiCo-LDH/BC//AC HSC. (e) Cycling stability of the HSC device at 20 A g−1 (the inset shows the photographs of LED lit up by the two HSC devices connected in series before and after cycles). Copyright 2024, Wiley [89].
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Jiang et al. successfully synthesized biomass-derived carbon@Li(Ni0.6Co0.4)O2 (BC@LNCO) micron tubes as anode materials for HSCs, utilizing sugarcane bagasse as a biotemplate (Figure 7a) [90]. The unique fibrous structure of the bagasse-derived carbon significantly increased the number of active sites within the BC@LNCO composite, thereby enhancing electrode–electrolyte interfacial contact and promoting lithium-ion diffusion. Moreover, the carbon substrate enabled the formation of a hierarchical porous structure comprising macro-, meso-, and micropores, which not only shortened ion diffusion pathways but also enhanced the structural integrity of the electrode. The resulting BC@LNCO composite exhibited a specific surface area of 21.59 m2 g−1 and a pore volume of 0.094 cm3 g−1, contributing to improved electrochemical kinetics (Figure 7b,c). As a result, the BC@LNCO electrode delivered a high specific capacitance of 921 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 and retained 72% of its capacitance at 10 A g−1, demonstrating excellent rate performance (Figure 7d,e). Furthermore, the assembled BC@LNCO//AC hybrid device achieved an energy density of 56.25 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 818.4 W kg−1, while maintaining 83% of its initial capacitance after 5000 charge–discharge cycles, highlighting its outstanding cycling stability.

4. Conclusions and Perspectives

In this brief review, we examine the synthesis, properties, and applications of various biomass-derived materials, highlighting recent advances in different energy storage systems, including LIBs, LSBs, and SCs. Biomass-derived carbon in LIBs offers a high specific surface area, a hierarchical porous structure, and excellent electrical conductivity, effectively mitigating volume expansion and ensuring structural stability, thereby significantly improving cycling performance. In LSBs, biomass-derived materials with high specific surface area and hierarchical porous architecture enhance the electrical conductivity of sulfur and mitigate the LiPSs shuttle effect by physically confining LiPSs within their porous structures and chemically anchoring them through surface functional groups or heteroatom doping. In the case of SCs, the exceptional specific surface area and hierarchical porous structure of biomass-derived carbon materials significantly boost ion adsorption/desorption at the electrode interface, leading to enhanced capacitive performance.
To enhance the performance of biomass-derived materials, it is crucial to explore advanced engineering strategies such as heteroatom doping and composite material design. Continued research in these areas will solidify biomass-derived materials as promising and sustainable alternatives for next-generation electrochemical energy storage applications.

Funding

This research was supported by the 2023 Academic Research Support Program of the Hankyong National University Academic Scholarship Foundation called the “Firefly Research Fund”.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Schematic of the preparation of NPC13. (b) SEM images and (c) elemental mapping of NPC13. (d) Cycling performance at 0.1 A g−1. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2025, Elsevier [40]. (e) Schematic of the preparation of SnO2@AC composites. (f,g) Cross-sectional images of SnO2 and SnO2@AC electrodes after 500 cycles. (h) Cycling performance of the electrodes at a current density of 0.5 A g−1. Copyright 2024, Elsevier [41].
Figure 1. (a) Schematic of the preparation of NPC13. (b) SEM images and (c) elemental mapping of NPC13. (d) Cycling performance at 0.1 A g−1. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2025, Elsevier [40]. (e) Schematic of the preparation of SnO2@AC composites. (f,g) Cross-sectional images of SnO2 and SnO2@AC electrodes after 500 cycles. (h) Cycling performance of the electrodes at a current density of 0.5 A g−1. Copyright 2024, Elsevier [41].
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Figure 2. (a) Schematic of the preparation of CPNs. A total of 2 g of pine needles were immersed in 50 mL of saturated KCl solution for 24 h at room temperature. The resulting CPNs exhibited a BET surface area of 365 m2 g−1. (b) Schematic illustration of AB:CPNs = (10:0, 2:8, 0:10). (c) Galvanostatic charge–discharge voltage profiles of AB:CPNs = 2:8. (d) Rate performance at different rates from 0.5 to 30 C. Copyright 2025, Elsevier [42].
Figure 2. (a) Schematic of the preparation of CPNs. A total of 2 g of pine needles were immersed in 50 mL of saturated KCl solution for 24 h at room temperature. The resulting CPNs exhibited a BET surface area of 365 m2 g−1. (b) Schematic illustration of AB:CPNs = (10:0, 2:8, 0:10). (c) Galvanostatic charge–discharge voltage profiles of AB:CPNs = 2:8. (d) Rate performance at different rates from 0.5 to 30 C. Copyright 2025, Elsevier [42].
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Figure 3. (a) Schematic of the synthesis process of S@WF-CNT electrodes. (b) SEM images of the WF-CNT-800 host and the S@WF-CNT-800 cathode with corresponding EDS maps. Copyright 2023, MDPI [64]. (c) Schematic the preparation of the S/(CNT@HPC) and the mixed conducting network for Li+ and e− inside the composite. (d) CNT@HPC material characterization, including XRD patterns, Raman spectra N2 adsorption/desorption isotherms, pore size distribution. Copyright 2016, Wiley [65]. (e) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of PCKH/S composite. (f) Electrochemical characterization of PCKH/S via cycling performance, rate performance, and voltage-capacity profiles. Copyright 2020, Elsevier [66].
Figure 3. (a) Schematic of the synthesis process of S@WF-CNT electrodes. (b) SEM images of the WF-CNT-800 host and the S@WF-CNT-800 cathode with corresponding EDS maps. Copyright 2023, MDPI [64]. (c) Schematic the preparation of the S/(CNT@HPC) and the mixed conducting network for Li+ and e− inside the composite. (d) CNT@HPC material characterization, including XRD patterns, Raman spectra N2 adsorption/desorption isotherms, pore size distribution. Copyright 2016, Wiley [65]. (e) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of PCKH/S composite. (f) Electrochemical characterization of PCKH/S via cycling performance, rate performance, and voltage-capacity profiles. Copyright 2020, Elsevier [66].
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Figure 4. (a) Schematic of the mechanism of the LA-GA binder. Mechanical and self-healing properties. (b) Stress–strain test curve showing the mechanical properties of LA-GA film. (c) Adhesion test of the LA-GA binder. Copyright 2024, Elsevier [74]. (d) Schematic of the synthesis process of the RB binder. (e) SEM and AFM morphology of the lithium metal anode after 100 cycles at 1 C in cells based on S@RB and S@PVDF cathodes. Copyright 2025, Wiley [75].
Figure 4. (a) Schematic of the mechanism of the LA-GA binder. Mechanical and self-healing properties. (b) Stress–strain test curve showing the mechanical properties of LA-GA film. (c) Adhesion test of the LA-GA binder. Copyright 2024, Elsevier [74]. (d) Schematic of the synthesis process of the RB binder. (e) SEM and AFM morphology of the lithium metal anode after 100 cycles at 1 C in cells based on S@RB and S@PVDF cathodes. Copyright 2025, Wiley [75].
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Figure 5. (a) Ragon plots of specific power versus specific energy for different types of energy storage materials. Copyright 2022, Elsevier [78]. (b) Classification of SCs. Copyright 2020, Elsevier [79].
Figure 5. (a) Ragon plots of specific power versus specific energy for different types of energy storage materials. Copyright 2022, Elsevier [78]. (b) Classification of SCs. Copyright 2020, Elsevier [79].
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Figure 7. (a) Schematic image of 3DG/SnO2-Co3O4 and Fe3O4@SBC preparation. (b) N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms of LNCO and BC@LNCO. (c) Pore size distribution of LNCO and BC@LNCO. (d) GCD curve of LNCO and BC@LNCO. (e) Specific capacitance of LNCO and BC@LNCO. Copyright 2025, Elsevier [90].
Figure 7. (a) Schematic image of 3DG/SnO2-Co3O4 and Fe3O4@SBC preparation. (b) N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms of LNCO and BC@LNCO. (c) Pore size distribution of LNCO and BC@LNCO. (d) GCD curve of LNCO and BC@LNCO. (e) Specific capacitance of LNCO and BC@LNCO. Copyright 2025, Elsevier [90].
Coatings 15 00915 g007
Table 1. On overview of biomass-derived carbon materials produced using activation techniques.
Table 1. On overview of biomass-derived carbon materials produced using activation techniques.
PrecursorActive AgentsTemperature (°C)SBET (m2 g−1)Ref.
Jack wood biocharNaOH800 °C−[17]
BambooSteam900 °C1120[18]
Rice huskNaOH800 °C254.9[20]
Corn stalkNaOH800 °C254.9[21]
Olive pomaceH3PO4500 °C10.6[22]
Chestnut shellKOH600 °C1394.95[24]
TanninCO2900 °C1370[26]
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Oh, Y.-S.; Seo, S.W.; Yang, J.-j.; Jeong, M.; Ahn, S. Eco-Friendly, Biomass-Derived Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices. Coatings 2025, 15, 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15080915

AMA Style

Oh Y-S, Seo SW, Yang J-j, Jeong M, Ahn S. Eco-Friendly, Biomass-Derived Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices. Coatings. 2025; 15(8):915. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15080915

Chicago/Turabian Style

Oh, Yeong-Seok, Seung Woo Seo, Jeong-jin Yang, Moongook Jeong, and Seongki Ahn. 2025. "Eco-Friendly, Biomass-Derived Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices" Coatings 15, no. 8: 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15080915

APA Style

Oh, Y.-S., Seo, S. W., Yang, J.-j., Jeong, M., & Ahn, S. (2025). Eco-Friendly, Biomass-Derived Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices. Coatings, 15(8), 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15080915

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