The African Wastewater Resistome: Identifying Knowledge Gaps to Inform Future Research Directions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of African Studies between 2012 and 2022
3. Case Study: South Africa
3.1. The South African Wastewater Resistome
3.2. Distribution of Studies by Province
3.3. Micro-organisms Targeted
3.4. AMR Determination Methods
3.5. Water Research Funding
4. Identifying Knowledge Gaps
4.1. Spatial (Geographical) Gaps
4.2. Methodological Gaps and Associated Challenges
4.3. Micro-organisms Gap
4.4. Reporting Gap
5. Proposed Future Perspective
- (i).
- There is a need to standardise protocols for assessing the WWTP resistome. This should consider the sampling regime, the sampling frequency, the organisms targeted, which antibiotics need to be tested and which methods should be used.
- (ii).
- There is a need to build capacity in sequencing technologies and bioinformatics, given the recent drift of the science to big data analysis.
- (iii).
- Funding must be made available to researchers as sequencing technologies are not yet widespread in the country, and the cost of using these facilities is still considerably high.
- (iv).
- Reporting of works on AMR in WWTPs needs to be improved, and there is a need to create a repository that would serve as a referral point for future studies.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | & Wastewater Type/Source | Duration of Study | Sample Size | Targeted Resistance | Phenotypic (P)/Genotypic (G) Resistance | Method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
* South Africa | WWTP | Two campaigns—actual duration not mentioned | # Not indicated | Cefotaxime-resistance | P | Culture | [23] |
Algeria | WWTP | 3 days in 2 months | Not indicated | ESBLs and associated quinolone resistance | P, G | Culture; PCR | [24] |
Botswana | WWTP | $ One-off sampling | one | Overall resistome | G | Shotgun metagenomics | [25] |
Botswana | WWTP | Monthly for 1 year | 72 | General resistance—9 antibiotics tested | P | Culture | [26] |
Burkina Faso | Urban channel | 6 months | 101 | ESBLs | P | Culture | [27] |
Burkina Faso | WWTP | Monthly for 5 months | 15 | General resistance—19 antibiotics | P | Culture | [28] |
Cameroon | Open-air canals | One-off | 6 (composite) samples | Overall resistome | G | Shotgun metagenomics | [29] |
Ethiopia | Hospital wastewater | 3 months | 27 | General resistance—13 antibiotics | P | Culture | [30] |
Ethiopia | Hospital wastewater | 4 months | 40 (composite samples) | General resistance—13 antibiotics | P | Culture | [31] |
Ghana | WWTP | Monthly—6 months | 30 | General resistance | P | Culture | [32] |
Kenya | University WWTP | 4 months | Not mentioned | Overall resistome | P, G | Culture; whole-genome sequencing | [33] |
Kenya | Septic tank | 2 months | Not mentioned | General resistance | P | Culture | [34] |
Kenya | WWTP | 6 months (covering the dry and rainy seasons) | 24 | General resistance | P | Culture | [35] |
Nigeria | Hospital WWTP | Weekly for 4 months | Not mentioned | ESBLs | P, G | Culture; PCR | Adekanmbi |
Senegal | Slaughterhouse wastewater and WWTP | Not mentioned | Not mentioned | General resistance—16 antibiotics | P | Culture | [36] |
South Africa | WWTP | 7 months (Every two weeks) | 81 | Overall resistome | P, G | Culture; whole-genome sequencing | [37] |
Tanzania | WWTP | 2013/2014 (Not specific) | 52 | General resistance—14 antibiotics | P | Microdilution | [38] |
Tunisia | WWTP | Not mentioned | Not mentioned | intI1, ARGs blaCTX-M, blaTEM, qnrA, qnrS, sul I, ermB | G | PCR | [39] |
Uganda | Multiple sources | Not mentioned | Not mentioned | General resistance—15 antibiotics | P | Culture | [40] |
Zambia | Wastewater ponds | Not mentioned | 5 samples | General resistance—8 antibiotics | P | Culture | [41] |
Zimbabwe | Abattoir wastewater | 3 months | 600 samples | General resistance—16 antibiotics | P | Culture | [42] |
Organism | Media | Incubation Temperature (°C) | Duration (Hours) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Brevibacillus spp.; Paenibacillus spp. | R2A media | Not mentioned (NM) | NM | [51] |
Acinetobacter baumannii | Leeds Acinetobacter Medium | 37 | 24 | [52] |
Acinetobacter baumannii; Acinetobacter spp. | CHROMagar Acinetobacter | 37 | 18–24 | [53,54] |
Aeromonas, Exiguobacterium | Nutrient agar, Blood agar | NM | NM | [55] |
Aeromonas spp. | Glutamate Starch Phenol-red (GSP) agar plates | 37 | 24 | [56] |
Aeromonas spp. | Rimler-Shotts agar | 37 | 20 | [57] |
Aeromonas spp. | Aeromonas spp. Isolation agar | 37 | 24 | [58] |
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens | nutrient agar | 37 | 18–24 | [59] |
Bacillus spp. | Nutrient agar, Blood agar | NM | NM | [55] |
Bacillus spp. | R2A media | NM | NM | [51] |
E. coli | Eosin methylene blue agar | 37 | 24 | [60] |
E. coli | Membrane Fecal Coliform (mFC) agar supplemented with 4 mg/L or 8 mg/L cefotaxime antibiotic | 37 | 24 | [61] |
E. coli | Chromocult Coliform Agar (Merck) | 37 | 24 | [62] |
E. coli | E. coli-Coliforms Chromogenic medium | 37 | 24 | [63,64] |
E. coli | CHROMagar ECC | 37 | 24 | [65] |
E. coli | E. coli-coliform selective agar | 37 | 24 | [66] |
E. coli | Chromogenic agar * | 37 | 24 | [67] |
E. coli | Colilert-18TM | 37 | 24 | [68] |
Enterobacteriaceae | Violet Red Bile Glucose (VRBG) agar | 37 | 18 | [69] |
Enterococcus spp. | R2A media | NM | NM | [51] |
Enterococcus spp. | KF-Streptococcus agar containing 1 mL of 2,3,5-Triphenyltetrazolium chloride | 37 | 48 | [70] |
Enterococcus spp. | chromogenic 51,759 HiCrome™ Rapid Enterococci Agar media | 37 | 24–48 | [71] |
Enterococcus spp. | Tryptic Soy Broth | 37 | 18 | [67] |
Enterococcus spp. | Bile Aesculin Azide Agar | 37 | 24 | [67] |
Enterococcus spp. | CHROMagar™ VRE, BBL™ Enterococcosel™ Broth | 37 ± 2 °C | 18 to 24 | [72] |
Enterococcus spp. | EnterolertTM | 41 | 24–48 | [68] |
Klebsiella spp. | Nutrient agar, Blood agar | NM | NM | [55] |
Klebsiella spp. | HiCrome Klebsiella selective agar | 35 | 24 | [73] |
Listeria spp. | Listeria Chromogenic agar | 35 | 24–48 | [57] |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Mineral salt medium | 30 | 18–24 | [59] |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa | CHROMagarTM Pseudomonas | 37 | 24–48 | [74] |
Pseudomonas spp. | Nutrient agar, Blood agar | NM | NM | [55] |
Pseudomonas spp. | R2A media | NM | NM | [51] |
Pseudomonas spp. | Pseudomonas Isolation Agar | 35 | 24–48 | [75] |
Pseudomonas spp. | Cetrimide agar | 37 | 24 | [58] |
Pseudomonas spp. | Glutamate Starch Phenol-red (GSP) agar | 37 | 24 | [56] |
Salmonella spp. | Salmonella-Shigella (SS) agar | 37 | 24–48 | [76] |
Shewanella spp. | Nutrient agar, Blood agar | NM | NM | [55] |
Staphylococcus aureus | Mannitol Salt Agar supplemented with cefoxitin. | Not mentioned (NM) | NM | [77] |
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia | Stenotrophomonas selective agar base with Vancomycin Imipenem Amphotericin B (VIA) supplement | 37 | 18 to 24 | [54] |
Vibrio spp. | thiosulfate-citrate–bile salt-sucrose (TCBS) agar | 37 | 24 | [63,78,79] |
Organism(s) | Antibiotics Tested (n = Number Tested) | Phenotypic Resistance | Genotypic Resistance | Method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
E. coli | n = 23: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, amoxicillin, amikacin, ampicillin, cefepime, cephalothin, cefotaxime, cefoxitin, cefixime, nalidixic acid, ceftazidime, cephalexin, cefuroxime, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, imipenem, meropenem, nitrofurantoin, piperacillin, tetracycline, tigecycline, trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole. | Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, amoxicillin, amikacin, ampicillin, cefepime, cephalothin, cefotaxime, cefoxitin, cefixime, ceftazidime, cephalexin, cefuroxime, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, imipenem, meropenem, nitrofurantoin, piperacillin, tetracycline, tigecycline, nalidixic acid, trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole. | TEM, SHV, CTX-M | DD/PCR-Sanger Sequencing | [60] |
E. coli | n = 8: Meropenem, colistin, amoxicillin/clavulanic, ciprofloxacin, nitrofurantoin trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazol, gentamicin, tetracycline. | Colistin, amoxicillin-clavulanic, ciprofloxacin, trimethoprimsulphamethoxazole, gentamicin, tetracycline, nitrofurantoin. | TEM, SHV, CTX-M, VIM, OXA-1, KPC-2, NDM-1 | DD/PCR | [61] |
S. aureus | n = 20: Amikacin, Gentamicin, Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, Ampicillin, Oxacillin, Penicillin, Imipenem, Cefoxitin, Cefozolin, Ciprofloxacin, Norfloxacin, Vancomycin, Clindamycin, Lincomycin, Azithromycin, Erythromycin, Chloramphenicol, Rifampicin, Tetracycline Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim. | Amikacin, Gentamicin, Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, Ampicillin, Oxacillin, Penicillin, Imipenem, Cefoxitin, Cefozolin, Norfloxacin, Vancomycin, Clindamycin, Lincomycin, Azithromycin, Erythromycin, Chloramphenicol, Rifampicin, Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, Tetracycline. | aac(6′)/aph(2″), blaZ, ermC, msrA and tetK, | DD/PCR | [77] |
Klebsiella spp. | n = 16: Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, piperacillin-tazobactam, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, cefalexin, cefoxitin, ertapenem, meropenem, doripenem, imipenem, aztreonam, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, moxifloxacin, gentamicin, tobramycin. | Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, piperacillin-tazobactam, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, cefalexin, cefoxitin, ertapenem, doripenem, aztreonam, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, moxifloxacin, gentamicin, tobramycin. | DD | [73] | |
Aeromonas spp. | n = 20: Ciprofloxacin, Trimethoprim, Ofloxacin, Chloramphenicol, Penicillins, Clindamycin, Ampicillin-sulbactam, Ampicillin, Gentamicin, Nalidixic acid, Cefotaxime, Nitrofurantoin, Oxacillin, Sulphamethoxazole, Cephalothin, Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Minocycline, vancomycin, Rifamycin. | Ciprofloxacin, Trimethoprim, Chloramphenicol, Penicillins, Clindamycin, Ampicillin-sulbactam, Oxacillin, Ampicillin, Gentamicin, Nalidixic acid, Cefotaxime, Nitrofurantoin, Sulphamethoxazole, Cephalothin, Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Minocycline, vancomycin, Rifamycin. | blaP1class A β-lactamase (pse1-PSE-1/CARB-2), blaTEM, TetC, Class 1 integron, Class 2 integron | DD/PCR | [56] |
Listeria spp. | n = 24: Penicillin, Cephalothin, Gentamicin, Kanamycin, Amikacin, Ertapenem, Meropenem, Cefotaxime, Ceftriaxone, Vancomycin, Clindamycin, Erythromycin, Nitrofurantoin, Ampicillin, Colistin, Nalidixic acid, Mixofloxacin, Fusidic Acid Ciprofloxacin, Trimethoprim, Tetracycline, Streptomycin, Fosfomycin Chloramphenicol. | Penicillin, Cephalothin, Kanamycin, Ertapenem, Cefotaxime, Ceftriaxone, Vancomycin, Clindamycin, Erythromycin, Nitrofurantoin, Ampicillin, Colistin, Nalidixic acid, Mixofloxacin, Trimethoprim, Tetracycline, | DD | [57] | |
Aeromonas spp. | Penicillin, Cephalothin, Kanamycin, Ertapenem, Meropenem, Cefotaxime, Ceftriaxone, Vancomycin, Clindamycin, Erythromycin, Nitrofurantoin, Ampicillin, Colistin, Nalidixic acid, Mixofloxacin, Trimethoprim, Tetracycline, Streptomycin, Chloramphenicol, Fosfomycin, Fusidic Acid. | ||||
E. coli | n = 13: Ampicillin, amoxicillin, cephalothin, cefazolin, ceftazidime, tetracycline, doxycycline, chloramphenicol, amikacin, gentamicin, nalidixicacid, norfloxacin, fosfomycin. | Ampicillin, amoxicillin, cephalothin, ceftazidime, tetracycline, doxycycline, chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid, norfloxacin, fosfomycin. | DD | [62] | |
Klebsiella Bacillus Pseudomonas Aeromonas Exiguobacterium Shewanella spp. | n = 6: Vancomycin, kanamycin, trimethoprim, oxytetracycline, amoxicillin and chloramphenicol. | Vancomycin, kanamycin, trimethoprim, oxytetracycline, amoxicillin and chloramphenicol. | BD | [55] | |
Enterococcus spp. | n = 1: Vancomycin | erm(B) was, VREfm, vanA (vanA, vanHA, vanRA, vanSA, vanYA and vanZA gene clusters), vanG (vanRG), vanN (vanRN) and vanL (vanSL), vanC (vanC1XY, vanSC, vanRC and vanXYC), isa(A), et(M), aac(6′)-Ii | WGS | [72] | |
Enterobacteriaceae | n = 18: Doxycycline, tetracycline, ampicillin, gentamicin, meropenem amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, amikacin, nitrofurantoin, cefuroxime, cefotaxime, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid, colistin sulphate, polymyxin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, imipenem. | Gentamycin, neomycin, penicillin G, nitrofurantoin, polymyxin B, cefuroxime. | ESBL (blaCTX-M, blaTEM, blaSHV, blaGES, blaIMP, blaKPC, blaVIM, blaOXA-1-like,blaPER, blaOXA-48-like, and blaVEB), pAmpC (blaACC, blaEBC, blaFOX,blaCIT, blaDHA, and blaMOX), non-β-lactam (aadA, catI,catII, strA, sulI, sulII, tetA, tetB, tetC, tetD, tetK, and tetM) | DD/PCR | [69] |
E. coli | n = 18: Ampicillin, amikacin, imipenem, meropenem, streptomycin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, nalidixic, tetracycline, trimethoprim, norfloxacin, Sulfamethoxazole, gentamycin, neomycin, penicillin G, nitrofurantoin, polymyxin B, cefuroxime. | blaTEM, blaSHV, blaZ, blaCTX-M, aadA, strA, tetA, tetB, tetK and tetM, | DD/PCR | [63] | |
Vibrio spp. | Ampicillin, amikacin, imipenem, meropenem, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, nalidixic, tetracycline, trimethoprim, norfloxacin, Sulfamethoxazole, gentamycin, neomycin, penicillin G, nitrofurantoin, polymyxin B, cefuroxime. | ||||
Enterococcus spp. | n = 14: Chloramphenicol, tetracycline, ampicillin, nitrofurantoin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, imipenem, linezolid, erythromycin, quinupristin-dalfopristin, tigecycline, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, vancomycin, teicoplanin. | lsa(A), msr(C), msr(D), erm(B), and mef(A), tet(S), tet(M), and tet(L), aac(60)-aph(200), ant(6)-Ia, aph(30)-III, aac(60)-Iid, aac(60)-Iih, dfrG | DD/WGS | [37] | |
E. coli | n = 17: Ampicillin, amikacin, imipenem, meropenem, streptomycin, cefotaxime, chloramphenicol, cephalexin, ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, tetracycline, norfloxacin, gentamicin, cefuroxime, polymyxin B, colistin sulfate, and nitrofurantoin. | Ampicillin, amikacin, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, cephalexin, nalidixic acid, tetracycline, norfloxacin, gentamicin, cefuroxime, cefotaxime, polymyxin B, colistin sulfate, and nitrofurantoin. | strA, aadA, cat I, cat II, cmlA1, ampC, blaZ, blaTEM, tetA, tetB, tetC, tetD, tetK, tetM | DD/PCR | [64] |
Aeromonas spp. | n = 12: Ampicillin, ceftazidime, cefixime, polymyxin B, colistin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, ofloxacin, minocycline, meropenem, imipenem, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole. | Ampicillin, ceftazidime, cefixime, polymyxin B, colistin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, minocycline, meropenem, imipenem, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole. | blaTEM, blaAmpC, AmpC/blaOXA, mcr-1, | DD/PCR | [58] |
Pseudomonas spp. | Ampicillin, ceftazidime, cefixime, polymyxin B, colistin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, ofloxacin, minocycline, meropenem, imipenem, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole. | ||||
Enterococci | ermA,ermB and ermC, tetK, tetM and tetL, vanA, vanB and vanC, aph(3‘)-IIIa, ant(4‘)-Ia,aac(6′)-Ie-aph(2”)-Ia | PCR | [71] | ||
Vibrio spp. | n = 13: Imipenem, nalidixic acid, erythromycin, gentamicin, Sulfamethoxazole, cefuroxime, penicillin G, chloramphenicol, polymixin B, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, meropenem and trimethoprim. | Nalidixic acid, erythromycin, Sulfamethoxazole, cefuroxime, penicillin G, chloramphenicol, polymixin B, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline and trimethoprim. | DD | [78] | |
Salmonella spp. | n = 20: Cephalothin, Imipenem, Cefoxitin, Cefuroxime, Piperacillin, Ampicillin, Cefixime, Ceftazidime, Aztreonam, Gentamycin, Amikacin, Streptomycin, Chloramphenicol, Tetracycline, Ciprofloxacin, Norfloxacin, Nalidixic acid, Nitrofurantoin, Sulfamethoxazole Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole. | Imipenem, Piperacillin, Ampicillin, Cefixime, Ceftazidime, Streptomycin, Nalidixic acid, Sulfamethoxazole. | DD | [76] | |
Pseudomonas spp. | n = 19: Ampicillin, cefotaxime, cephalothin, cefepime, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, erythromycin, gentamicin, minocycline, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, ofloxacin, oxacillin, penicillin G, rifampin, sulphamethoxazole, tetracycline, vancomycin, ampicillin-sulbactam. | Ampicillin, cefotaxime, cephalothin, cefepime, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, minocycline, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, oxacillin, penicillin G, rifampin, sulphamethoxazole, tetracycline, vancomycin, ampicillin-sulbactam. | DD | [75] | |
Enterococcus spp. | n = 11: Ampicillin, amoxicillin, penicillin, neomycin, streptomycin, vancomycin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, trimethoprim, erythromycin. | Ampicillin, amoxicillin, penicillin, neomycin, streptomycin, vancomycin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, trimethoprim, erythromycin. | DD | [70] | |
E. coli | n = 9: Ampicillin, penicillin, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, trimethoprim, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, imipenem and meropenem. | Ampicillin, penicillin, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, trimethoprim, cefotaxime, ceftazidime. | Alr, blaTEM, blaSHV and blaCTX-M | DD/PCR | [65] |
Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Enterococcus, Brevibacillus, Paenibacillus | n = 3 Penicillin G, vancomycin, erythromycin. | Vancomycin Erythromycin Penicillin G | DD | [51] | |
E. coli | n = 12: Amoxicillin, Cefuroxime, Gentamicin, Doxycycline, Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Trimithoprime, Menopenem, Colistin sulphate, Erythromycin, Clindamycin, Sulphamethoxazole. | Amoxicillin, Cefuroxime, Gentamicin, Doxycycline, Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Trimithoprime, Menopenem, Colistin sulphate, Erythromycin, Clindamycin, Sulphamethoxazole. | DD | [67] | |
Pseudomonas spp. | n = 20: Penicillins, clinamycins, ciprofloxacin, rafamycin, trimethoprim, sulphamethoxazole, gentamicin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, erythromycin, minocycline, vacomycin, cefotaxime, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, cephalothin, ofloxacin, ampicillin, ampicillin-sulbactam, oxacillin. | Penicillins, clinamycins, rafamycin, trimethoprim, sulphamethoxazole, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, minocycline, vacomycin, cefotaxime, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, cephalothin, ampicillin, ampicillin-sulbactam, oxacillin. | blaTEM, blaOXA, blaAmpC, TetC, | DD/PCR | [89] |
Escherichia coli Enterococcus spp. | n = 22: Amikacin, ampicillin, azithromycin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, cefepime, cefotaxime, cefoxitin, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, cephalexin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, gentamicin, imipenem, meropenem, nalidixic acid, piperacillin-tazobactam, tetracycline, tigecycline, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. | [68] | |||
n = 16: Imipenem, Ampicillin, tetracycline, Nitrofurantoin, quinupristin-dalfopristin, tigecycline, Linezolid, ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, Levofloxacin, Teicoplanin, vancomycin, Gentamycin, Streptomycin, Erythromycin, chloramphenicol. |
SN | Report Number | Project Title | Year | Aim | WWTP | AST |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1126/1/05 | Enteric pathogens in water sources and stools of residents in the Venda region of the Limpopo Province | 2005 | Identify and characterise enteric pathogens in water sources and stool samples of residents in the Venda region of the Limpopo Province | No | Yes |
2 | 1967/1/13 | Investigations into the existence of unique environmental Escherichia coli populations | 2013 | Identify and characterise E. coli from chosen localities and different samples | No | No |
3 | 2138/1/16 | An investigation into the presence of free-living amoebae and amoeba-resistant bacteria in drinking water distribution systems of health care institutions in Johannesburg, South Africa | 2016 | To establish the occurrence of free-living amoebae and amoeba resistant bacteria within the drinking water distribution system in health care facilities in Johannesburg and also highlight the potential human health risk implication thereof | Yes | No |
4 | 2432/1/18 | Cholera Monitoring and Response Guidelines | 2018 | The development of cholera monitoring and response guidelines for inclusion in the water resource monitoring programme. | Yes | Yes |
5 | 2585/1/19 | Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and genes in drinking water. Implications for drinking water production and quality monitoring | 2019 | Identify and characterise microbial parameters in drinking water systems | No | Yes |
6 | 2610/1/18 | Microplastics in freshwater water environments | 2018 | Identify and characterise microplastics in freshwater, drinking water and groundwater | No | No |
7 | 2706/1/21 | Measurement of water pollution determining the sources and changes of microbial contamination and impact on food safety from farming to retail level for fresh vegetables | 2021 | To determine the link between water pollution and crop contamination and to determine sources of microbial product contamination, and assess the impact on food safety from farming to retail for selected fresh vegetable supply chains | No | Yes |
8 | 2733/1/20 | Substances of emerging concern in South African aquatic ecosystems | 2020 | Identify and evaluate different contaminants of emerging concern in different water sources | Yes | No |
9 | 1655/1/10 | Identification of Arsenic Resistance Genes in Micro-organisms from Maturing Fly Ash-Acid Mine Drainage Neutralised Solids | 2011 | To isolate micro-organisms resistant to arsenic from matured AMD-FA neutralized solids, to characterize their arsenic resistance systems and to assess whether these organisms pose a potential ‘threat’ to the sustained use of ‘Neutralization Solids’ | No | No |
10 | KV 360/16 | A Scoping Study on the Levels of Antimicrobials and Presence of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in Drinking Water | 2016 | To provide an overview of the levels of antimicrobials and the presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in selected drinking water treatment systems (drinking water production facilities) | No | Yes |
11 | TT 742/1/17 | Emerging contaminants in wastewater treated for direct potable reuse: the human health risk priorities in South Africa | 2018 | Identify and evaluate different contaminants of emerging concern in different water sources | Yes | No |
12 | The epidemiology and cost of treating diarrhoea in South Africa | Identify and characterise enteric pathogens in water sources and stool samples of residents in the Venda region of the Limpopo Province | No | Yes |
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Abia, A.L.K.; Baloyi, T.; Traore, A.N.; Potgieter, N. The African Wastewater Resistome: Identifying Knowledge Gaps to Inform Future Research Directions. Antibiotics 2023, 12, 805. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12050805
Abia ALK, Baloyi T, Traore AN, Potgieter N. The African Wastewater Resistome: Identifying Knowledge Gaps to Inform Future Research Directions. Antibiotics. 2023; 12(5):805. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12050805
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbia, Akebe Luther King, Themba Baloyi, Afsatou N. Traore, and Natasha Potgieter. 2023. "The African Wastewater Resistome: Identifying Knowledge Gaps to Inform Future Research Directions" Antibiotics 12, no. 5: 805. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12050805