Microfabricated Tactile Sensors for Biomedical Applications: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Principles of Measurement
2.1. Piezoresistive Sensors
2.2. Piezoelectric Sensors
2.3. Capacitive Sensors
3. Microfabrication Process
- (1)
- photolithography: it is the process used for pattern transfer into the material. The pattern, designed by means of a CAD software, is transferred onto a glass mask, which has on the surface a photodefinable opaque material with the shape of the desired pattern. A substrate, spin-coated with photoresist (a photoresistive organic polymer), is placed in contact with the mask and they are hit by UV light, used to make the photoresist soluble into the opaque material. Lastly, mask and substrate are separated, and the photoresist is removed from the new system [41];
- (2)
- stencil lithography: is a relatively new process used to produce patterns through a shadow mask and evaporation of material in a vacuum, and based on the method of physical vapor deposition. The main advantages of this method are the sub-micrometer resolution and its applicability with fragile substrates, like biological macromolecules [42,43];
- (3)
- (4)
- etching: it is the process of selectively removing materials in fixed patterns, using both liquid chemical substances (wet etching) and gas-phase chemistry (dry etching). Furthermore, etching can be either isotropic or anisotropic: in the first case, the etching acts equally in all direction of the space, whereas in the second case the effect is directional. Dry etching is commonly used to achieve anisotropic outcomes [45];
- (5)
- bonding: the process of permanently binding together two substrates, in particular solid-state materials with smooth and flat substances, usually used for packaging. Many techniques have been developed to perform bonding, such as the fusion bonding, which employs chemical reaction between the bonding surfaces of several materials, and the anodic bonding, which is a thermally activated process supported by electrical field. Micromechanical sandwiched silicon systems are usually fabricated through high-temperature bonding (>700 °C), whereas silicon wafer and glass substrate are bonded together by means of middle temperature (200–500 °C) [46].
4. Application in Medicine
4.1. Prosthetic Hands
4.1.1. Piezoresistive Sensors
4.1.2. Piezoelectric Sensors
4.1.3. Capacitive Sensors
4.2. Microsurgical Force Sensors
4.2.1. Piezoelectric Sensors
4.2.2. Piezoresistive and Capacitive Sensors
4.3. Biomechanical Analysis
Piezoresistive Sensors
4.4. Multimodal Sensors
4.5. New Frontiers
5. Discussion and Conclusions
Sensing Principle | Author, Year, Reference | Microfabrication Process | Design | Application | Metrological Properties |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Piezoresistive sensors | Beebe et al., 1995–1998 [59,60] | Silicon direct bonding and bulk micromachining | Silicon piezoresistive diaphragm | Human finger force measurement |
|
Dario, Carrozza et al., 2005–2009 [61,62,63,64,90,94] | Subtractive dry etching | Silicon-based three-axial force sensor | Robotic tactile sensing; MIS |
| |
Dargahi et al., 2010–2011 [88,89] | - | PVDF membrane | MIS |
| |
Hseih et al., 2000, [92] | Silicon bulk micromachining | Micro shear-stress sensor | Biomechanical analysis |
| |
Alfaro et al., 2009, [93] | CMOS process, maskless dryetching | Piezoresistive strain gauges | Biomechanical analysis |
| |
Wahab et al., 2008, [95] | Silicon bulk processing (designed only) | Wheatstone bridge configuration | Biomechanical analysis |
| |
Ando et al., 1994 [65] | Etching | PVDF electrodes housed in silica | Artificial tactile sensing for touch and slip |
| |
Dargahi et al. [66,81,82,83] | Photolithography and anisotropic etching | Silicon, tooth-like pattered layer transfers force to PVDF film | Endoscopic grasper |
| |
Ezhilvalavan et al., 2006 [84] | Deep reactive ion, ion beam and wet-chemical etching | PZT force sensors with top and bottom electrodes forming capacitor | MIS | Only electrical characterization, e.g., leakage current 10−7 A/cm2 (applied electric field of 200 kV·cm−1) | |
Li et al., 2008 [86]Sharma et al.,2012 [85] | Mold-transfer method | PVDF-TrFE copolymer | MIS |
| |
Capacitive sensors | Gray and Fearing 1996 [69] | - | Rubber layer on polysilicon capacitor | General biomedical purposes |
|
Lee et al., 2005–2006 [70,71] | Bonding | PDMS layer | Robotic skin |
| |
Muhammad et al., 2011 [73,75] | Bonded and Etched-Back Silicon-On-Insulator wafers, Deep Reactive Ion Etching | PDMS-coated capacitive sensor | Robotic finger |
| |
Multimodal sensors | Castelli 2002 [52] | - | Capacitive sensors for force and temperature | Robotic tactile skin |
|
Egel et al., 2005 [97] | Etching, lift-off pattering | Strain gauge for force measurement, RTD for temperature measurement | Robotic tactile skin | - | |
Optical-based sensors | Su et al., 2011 [104] Liu et al., 2012 [105] | - | Fabry-Perot interferometer | MIS |
|
Cowie et al., 2007 [107] | - | Fiber Bragg gratings | General biomedical purposes |
| |
De Rossi et al., 2001 [109] | - | Light intensity modulation | Biomechanical analysis |
| |
Ahmadi et al., 2010 [89] | - | Light intensity modulation | MIS | - | |
Fluidic sensors | Fishel et al., 2008 [56] | - | Pressure sensor housed into a fluid-filled fingertip | Biomimetic Fingertips | - |
Ponce Wong et al., 2012 [111] | Soft lithography | Galinstan-filled microchannels | Artificial skin |
| |
Park et al., 2012 [112] | Silicon layered molding and casting process | Multilayered mircochannels in elastomer matrix | Fingertips | - | |
Ionic Polymeric Metal Composite (IPMC) | Bonomo et al., 2008 [122] | - | Two IPMC membranes | MIS |
|
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Saccomandi, P.; Schena, E.; Oddo, C.M.; Zollo, L.; Silvestri, S.; Guglielmelli, E. Microfabricated Tactile Sensors for Biomedical Applications: A Review. Biosensors 2014, 4, 422-448. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios4040422
Saccomandi P, Schena E, Oddo CM, Zollo L, Silvestri S, Guglielmelli E. Microfabricated Tactile Sensors for Biomedical Applications: A Review. Biosensors. 2014; 4(4):422-448. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios4040422
Chicago/Turabian StyleSaccomandi, Paola, Emiliano Schena, Calogero Maria Oddo, Loredana Zollo, Sergio Silvestri, and Eugenio Guglielmelli. 2014. "Microfabricated Tactile Sensors for Biomedical Applications: A Review" Biosensors 4, no. 4: 422-448. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios4040422