Flexible Cu Nanostructured Laser-Induced Graphene Electrodes for Highly Sensitive and Non-Invasive Lactate Detection in Saliva

A scalable and facile fabrication strategy is presented for developing a flexible, nanostructured, non-enzymatic electrochemical sensor for lactate detection based on copper-modified laser-induced graphene (CuNPs/LIG). A one-step electrodeposition process was employed to uniformly decorate the porous LIG framework with copper nanostructures, offering a cost-effective and reproducible approach for constructing enzyme-free sensing platforms. Scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy confirmed dense Cu nanostructure loading and efficient interfacial integration across the conductive LIG surface. The resulting CuNPs/LIG electrode exhibited excellent electrocatalytic performance, achieving a sensitivity of 8.56 μA µM⁻¹ cm⁻² with a low detection limit of 42.65 μM and a linear response toward lactate concentrations ranging from 100 to 1100 μM in artificial saliva under physiological conditions. The sensor maintained high selectivity in the presence of physiologically relevant interferents. Practical applicability was demonstrated through recovery studies, where recovery rates exceeding 104% showcase the sensor’s analytical reliability in complex biological matrices. Overall, this work establishes a robust, sensitive, and cost-efficient Cu-nanostructured LIG sensing platform, offering strong potential for non-invasive lactate monitoring in real-world biomedical and wearable applications.