Paper-Based Biosensors for the Detection of Nucleic Acids from Pathogens
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Detection Method
2.1. Structure-Recognition Biosensors
2.1.1. Aptamer-Based Sensors
2.1.2. Nucleic Acid-Modified Nanostructures
2.1.3. Nucleic Acid Immunoassays
2.1.4. Nucleic Acid Hybridization Sensors
2.2. Oligonucleotide-Guided Biosensors
2.2.1. Rolling Circle Amplification (RCA)
2.2.2. Recombinase Polymerase Amplification (RPA)
2.2.3. Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP)
2.2.4. CRISPR/Cas
2.3. Critical Thinking in Choosing Detection Methods
3. Reporting Method
3.1. Electrochemical
3.2. Fluorometric
3.2.1. Fluorescent Dyes
3.2.2. Nanoparticles
3.2.3. Fluorescent Proteins/Organic Molecules
3.3. Colorimetric
3.3.1. pH
Colorimetric Reporters | Mechanism | Color Change (Negative-Positive) | LoD (Copies a or CFU b per Reaction) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Phenol red | pH | Red-Yellow | 50–1000 a | [83,89,164] |
Phenolphthalein | pH | Pink-Colorless | 1.225 b | [165] |
Chemosensor-L | pH | Yellow-Colorless | 0.5 b | [166,167] |
MColorpHast | pH | Green/brown-Yellow | 3.36 × 104 a | [168] |
Crystal violet | DNA-binding | Colorless-Purple | 4413 a | [169] |
Methylene blue | DNA-binding | Colorless-Blue | 25 b | [170] |
Fuchsin | DNA-binding | Colorless-Purple | 1–300 b | [171,172] |
Gold nanoparticles | Aggregation | Colorless-Red | 1.806 × 105–1.806 × 109 a | [173,175] |
Silver nanoparticles | Aggregation | Colorless-Yellow | 1.55 × 1010–2.30 × 1010 a | [176] |
Polystyrene latex microspheres | Aggregation | Colorless-Red/ Colorless-Blue | 1.806 × 1011 a | [177,178] |
Hydroxynaphthol blue | Mg2+ depletion | Violet-Blue | 2.07 × 104 a | [179] |
3.3.2. DNA Binding
3.3.3. Aggregation
3.3.4. Mg2+ Depletion
3.4. Critical Thinking in Choosing Reporting Methods
4. Device Formats
4.1. Lateral Flow Assays (LFAs)
4.2. Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices (µPADs)
4.3. Integrated Design of Paper-Based Biosensors
5. Conclusions and Prospects
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Fluorometric Reporters | Type of Reporter | Target Nucleic Acid | Excitation Wavelength | LoD (Copies per Reaction) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SYBR Green I | Fluorescent dye | DNA | Maximum excitation 497 nm Secondary excitation peaks at 290 and 380 nm. | 1–10 | [145,146] |
Hydroxynaphthol blue (HNB) | Fluorescent dye | DNA | 530 nm | 4.1 × 102 | [97] |
Green calcein | Fluorescent dye | DNA | 365 nm | 25 | [147] |
Quantum dots | Nanoparticles | DNA | 375 nm | 1.12 × 106 | [148] |
Fluorescent probes | Oligonucleotide probe | Plasmid DNA | 493 nm/580 nm | 10–100 | [149] |
R-phycoerythrin and Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) | Organic fluorophore | ssDNA | 496 nm and 495 nm, respectively | 115 | [150] |
Detected Pathogen | Detection Method | Device Format | Reporting Method | Assay Time | Sample Processing | Sample Used to Determine LoD | LoD (Copies per Reaction) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SARS-CoV-2 | Nucleic acid hybridization | µPADs | Electrochemical | RNA extraction time + 5 min | RNA extraction | Extracted viral RNA | 2310 | [187] |
SARS-CoV-2 | RT-LAMP; Cas12b | LFAs | Colorimetric (GNPs) | 45 min | RNA extraction | In vitro-transcribed RNA in water | 20 | [104] |
SARS-CoV-2 | RT-LAMP; CRISPR–Cas12 | LFAs | Colorimetric (GNPs) | 90 min | RNA extraction, magnetic beads RNA concentration | Synthetic genomic standards spiked into saliva or nasopharyngeal (NP) swab | 100 | [77] |
SARS-CoV-2 | RT-LAMP | µPADs | Colorimetric (Phenol red) | 60 min | Saliva dilution | Heat inactivated virus in saliva | 250 | [83] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Toehold switch | µPADs | Bioluminescent (bioluminescent reporter protein) | RNA extraction + 15 min | RNA extraction | Synthetic RNA targets in saliva | 5.8 × 109 | [190] |
Zika virus, Dengue virus | RPA; CRISPR–Cas13 | LFAs | Colorimetric (GNPs) | 120 min | RNA extraction | cDNA in water and urine | 20 | [191] |
Zika virus, Dengue virus | RT-LAMP | µPADs | Fluorometric (Hydroxynaphthol blue) | 60 min | RNA extraction | RNA in 1X PBS and 100% human serum | 1 and 10 | [192] |
Zika virus, Dengue virus, Chikungunya virus | RT-LAMP | µPADs &LFAs | Fluorometric (Hydroxynaphthol blue) | 60 min | RNA extraction | RNA in human serum | 5 | [185] |
Plasmodium species | RT-LAMP | µPADs &LFAs | Colorimetric (Streptavidin labeled red particle) | 50 min | DNA extraction, magnetic beads DNA concentration | Genomic DNA in water | 32 | [193] |
Plasmodium species | RT-RPA; CRISPR–Cas12 | LFAs | Colorimetric (GNPs) | 70 min | DNA extraction | Genomic DNA in blood or serum | 375 | [194] |
Hepatitis B Virus | Pyrrolidinyl peptide nucleic acid (acpcPNA) | eLFAs | Electrochemical | DNA extraction + 7 min | DNA extraction | DNA in water | 4.3 × 106 | [137] |
Hepatitis C Virus | acpcPNA | µPADs | Fluorometric (QuantiFluor®) | DNA extraction + 15 min | DNA extraction | Synthetic DNA oligonucleotide in water | 3.0 × 106 | [195] |
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Wang, J.; Davidson, J.L.; Kaur, S.; Dextre, A.A.; Ranjbaran, M.; Kamel, M.S.; Athalye, S.M.; Verma, M.S. Paper-Based Biosensors for the Detection of Nucleic Acids from Pathogens. Biosensors 2022, 12, 1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12121094
Wang J, Davidson JL, Kaur S, Dextre AA, Ranjbaran M, Kamel MS, Athalye SM, Verma MS. Paper-Based Biosensors for the Detection of Nucleic Acids from Pathogens. Biosensors. 2022; 12(12):1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12121094
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Jiangshan, Josiah Levi Davidson, Simerdeep Kaur, Andres A. Dextre, Mohsen Ranjbaran, Mohamed S. Kamel, Shreya Milind Athalye, and Mohit S. Verma. 2022. "Paper-Based Biosensors for the Detection of Nucleic Acids from Pathogens" Biosensors 12, no. 12: 1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12121094