Urinary Volatiles and Chemical Characterisation for the Non-Invasive Detection of Prostate and Bladder Cancers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Urine Samples
2.2. Analytical Devices
2.2.1. G.A.S. FlavourSpec Gas Chromatography-Ion Mobility Spectrometry (GC-IMS)
2.2.2. Markes Gas Chromatography Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS)
2.3. Statistical Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Group | Bladder Cancer | Prostate Cancer | Non-Cancerous |
---|---|---|---|
Number of samples | 15 | 55 | 36 |
Mean Age (years) | 70.0 | 71.9 | 62.5 |
Sex: Male/Female | 12:3 | All Male | 24:12 |
Mean BMI (Kg/m2) | 24.4 | 27.5 | 30.9 |
Current Smoker n (% of patients) | 1 (6.7%) | 6 (10.9%) | 3 (8.3%) |
Mean PSA level (ng/mL) | - | 20.6 (3.6–153.90) | - |
Gleason score | - | Case 01 4 + 5 = 9 Case 02 3 + 4 = 7 Case 03 3 + 3 = 6 Case 04 4 + 5 = 9 Case 05 4 + 5 = 9 Case 06 3 + 4 = 7 Case 07 3 + 4 = 7 Case 08 3 + 5 = 8 Case 09 5 + 4 = 9 Case 10 3 + 4 = 7 Case 11 3 + 3 = 6 Case 12 3 + 4 = 7 Case 13 3 + 3 = 6 Case 14 4 + 5 = 9 Case 15 3 + 4 = 7 Case 16 3 + 4 = 7 Case 17 3 + 4 = 7 Case 18 3 + 4 = 7 Case 19 3 + 4 = 7 Case 20 3 + 3 = 6 Case 21 4 + 5 = 9 Case 22 3 + 3 = 6 Case 23 4 + 3 = 7 Case 24 3 + 4 = 7 Case 25 4 + 4 = 8 Case 26 3 + 3 = 6 Case 27 4 + 5 = 9 Case 28 4 + 4 = 8 Case 29 3 + 3 = 6 Case 30 3 + 3 = 6 Case 31 4 + 4 = 8 Case 32 3 + 4 = 7 Case 33 4 + 5 = 9 Case 34 3 + 4 = 7 Case 35 3 + 4 = 7 Case 36 3 + 4 = 7 Case 37 3 + 4 = 7 Case 38 3 + 5 = 8 Case 39 4 + 5 = 9 Case 40 3 + 4 = 7 Case 41 3 + 4 = 7 Case 42 3 + 4 = 7 Case 43 3 + 5 = 8 Case 44 3 + 4 = 7 Case 45 5 + 5 = 10 Case 46 4 + 5 = 9 Case 47 4 + 4 = 8 Case 48 3 + 4 = 7 Case 49 4 + 3 = 7 Case 50 3 + 3 = 6 Case 51 4 + 5 = 9 Case 52 4 + 4 + 8 Case 53 3 + 3 = 6 Case 54 3 + 4 = 7 Case 55 3 + 3 = 6 | - |
WHO 1973 Grade | Case 01 G2 Case 02 G3 Case 03 G3 Case 04 G1 Case 05 G2 Case 06 G3 Case 07 G1 Case 08 G3 Case 09 G3 Case 10 G1 Case 11 G3 Case 12 G1 Case 13 G1 Case 14 G2 Case 15 G1 | - | - |
Prostate cancer Gleason grading: Score ≤ 6, pattern ≤ 3 + 3. This refers to Grade 1. Tumour cells look like normal prostate cells with only individual discrete well-formed glands. Score 7, pattern 3 + 4. This refers to Grade 2. Tumour with well-form glands and lesser component of poorly differentiated glands. Score 7, pattern 4 + 3. This refers to Grade 3. Tumour has predominantly poorly formed/fused/cribriform glands with lesser component of well-formed glands. Score 8, pattern 4 + 4, 3 + 5 and 5 + 3. This refers to Grade 4. Tumour with only poorly formed/fused/cribriform glands. Score 9 or 10, pattern 4 + 5, 5 + 4 and 5 + 5. This refers to Grade 5. Tumour lacking gland formation (or with necrosis) with or without poorly formed/fused/cribriform glands [38]. G1 low grade differentiation, G2 moderate grade differentiation and G3 is high grade differentiation [39]. |
Comparisons | Classifiers | AUC | Sensitivity | Specificity | PPV | NPV |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BCa vs. PCa | Logistic Regression with Elastic Net Regularization | 0.97 (0.93–1.00) | 0.60 (0.38–0.80) | 0.98 (0.95–1.00) | 0.90 | 0.90 |
BCa vs. non-Cancerous | Logistic Regression with Elastic Net Regularization | 0.95 (0.90–0.99) | 0.87 (0.70–1.00) | 0.92 (0.84–0.98) | 0.81 | 0.95 |
PCa vs. non-Cancerous | Extreme Gradient Boosting | 0.89 (0.83–0.94) | 0.76 (0.64–0.88) | 0.88 (0.80–0.95) | 0.81 | 0.85 |
Comparisons | Classifiers | AUC | Sensitivity | Specificity | PPV | NPV |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BCa vs. PCa | Logistic Regression with Elastic Net Regularization | 0.84 (0.73–0.93) | 0.53 (0.33–0.75) | 0.90 (0.83–0.96) | 0.62 | 0.87 |
BCa vs. non-Cancerous | Random Forest | 0.81 (0.70–0.90) | 0.27 (0.09–0.46) | 0.94 (0.88–1.00) | 0.33 | 0.71 |
PCa vs. Non-Cancerous | Random Forest | 0.94 (0.90–0.97) | 0.78 (0.66–0.89) | 0.88 (0.80–0.95) | 0.82 | 0.85 |
Chemicals | p-Values | Molecular Weight (g/mol) | |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Biphenyl | <0.01 | 154.21 |
2 | Nonanal | <0.01 | 142.24 |
3 | Tetradecane | <0.01 | 198.39 |
4 | Pentadecane, 2,6,10,14-tetramethyl- | 0.012 | 268.5 |
5 | 2-Pentanone | 0.012 | 86.13 |
6 | Undecane | 0.014 | 156.31 |
7 | 4-Heptanone | 0.018 | 114.19 |
8 | Dodecane | 0.025 | 170.33 |
9 | Hexadecane | 0.026 | 226.44 |
10 | Heptanal | 0.026 | 114.19 |
11 | Methyl Isobutyl Ketone | 0.045 | 100.16 |
12 | Naphthalene | 0.046 | 128.169 |
13 | Benzoic acid | 0.049 | 122.12 |
Chemicals | p-Values | Molecular Weight (g/mol) | |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Toluene | <0.01 | 92.14 |
2 | Phenol | <0.01 | 325.4 |
3 | Acetic acid | <0.01 | 60.05 |
4 | 1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl- | 0.011 | 130.229 |
5 | Disulfide, dimethyl | 0.012 | 94.2 |
6 | Cyclopentanone, 2-methyl- | 0.017 | 98.14 |
7 | Pyrrole | 0.033 | 67.09 |
Chemicals | p-Values | Molecular Weight (g/mol) | |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Toluene | <0.01 | 92.14 |
2 | Methyl Isobutyl Ketone | <0.01 | 100.16 |
3 | Dodecane | <0.01 | 170.33 |
4 | Phenol | <0.01 | 325.4 |
5 | Cyclopentanone, 2-methyl- | <0.01 | 98.14 |
6 | 2-Hexanone | <0.01 | 100.16 |
7 | Heptanal | <0.01 | 114.19 |
8 | p-Xylene | <0.01 | 106.16 |
9 | Nonane, 3-methyl- | <0.01 | 142.28 |
10 | Tetradecane | <0.01 | 198.39 |
11 | Nonanal | <0.01 | 142.24 |
12 | Biphenyl | 0.019 | 154.21 |
13 | Acetic acid | 0.025 | 60.05 |
14 | 2-Pentanone | 0.032 | 86.13 |
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Tyagi, H.; Daulton, E.; Bannaga, A.S.; Arasaradnam, R.P.; Covington, J.A. Urinary Volatiles and Chemical Characterisation for the Non-Invasive Detection of Prostate and Bladder Cancers. Biosensors 2021, 11, 437. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11110437
Tyagi H, Daulton E, Bannaga AS, Arasaradnam RP, Covington JA. Urinary Volatiles and Chemical Characterisation for the Non-Invasive Detection of Prostate and Bladder Cancers. Biosensors. 2021; 11(11):437. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11110437
Chicago/Turabian StyleTyagi, Heena, Emma Daulton, Ayman S. Bannaga, Ramesh P. Arasaradnam, and James A. Covington. 2021. "Urinary Volatiles and Chemical Characterisation for the Non-Invasive Detection of Prostate and Bladder Cancers" Biosensors 11, no. 11: 437. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11110437