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Review

Advancements in Bio-Nanotechnology: Green Synthesis and Emerging Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles

by
M. D. K. M. Gunasena
1,2,
G. D. C. P. Galpaya
2,
C. J. Abeygunawardena
3,
D. K. A. Induranga
2,4,
H. V. V. Priyadarshana
2,4,
S. S. Millavithanachchi
1,
P. K. G. S. S. Bandara
1 and
K. R. Koswattage
2,4,*
1
Department of Biosystems Technology, Faculty of Technology, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya 70140, Sri Lanka
2
Center for Nanodevice Fabrication and Characterization, Faculty of Technology, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya 70140, Sri Lanka
3
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76706, USA
4
Department of Engineering Technology, Faculty of Technology, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya 70140, Sri Lanka
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Nanomaterials 2025, 15(7), 528; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070528
Submission received: 5 March 2025 / Revised: 26 March 2025 / Accepted: 28 March 2025 / Published: 31 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Biology and Medicines)

Abstract

:
The field of bio-nanotechnology has seen significant advancements in recent years, particularly in the synthesis and application of bio-nanoparticles (BNPs). This review focuses on the green synthesis of BNPs using biological entities such as plants, bacteria, fungi, and algae. The utilization of these organisms for nanoparticle synthesis offers an eco-friendly and sustainable alternative to conventional chemical and physical methods, which often involve toxic reagents and high energy consumption. Phytochemicals present in plant extracts, unique metabolic pathways, and biomolecules in bacteria and fungi, and the rich biochemical composition of algae facilitate the production of nanoparticles with diverse shapes and sizes. This review further explores the wide-ranging applications of BNPs in various fields like therapeutics, fuel cells, energy generation, and wastewater treatment. In therapeutics, BNPs have shown efficacy in antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. In the energy sector, BNPs are being integrated into fuel cells and other energy generation systems like bio-diesel to improve efficiency and sustainability. Their catalytic properties and large surface area enhance the performance of these devices. Wastewater treatment is another critical area where BNPs are employed for the removal of heavy metals, organic pollutants, and microbial contaminants, offering a cost-effective and environmentally friendly solution to water purification. This comprehensive review highlights the potential of bio-nanoparticles synthesized through green methods. It highlights the need for further research to optimize synthesis processes, understand mechanisms of action, and expand the scope of their applications. BNPs can be utilized to address advantages and some of the pressing challenges in medicine, energy, and environmental sustainability, paving the way for innovative and sustainable technological advancements in future prospects.

1. Introduction

Nanotechnology research and studies have advanced rapidly worldwide, and the applications of nanoparticles (NPs) in various fields, including biomedical applications, cell labeling, drug delivery, plant tissue culture, biomarkers, the automobile industry, and the energy sector, have become significant subjects of study in recent years, [1,2,3]. Different synthesis methods can be used for the preparation of NPs with variations in size and morphology. Chemical and physical methods are widely used, while biological methods are currently emerging as an alternative [4]. The use of chemical agents such as sodium hydroxide, sodium borohydride, potassium hydroxide, and hydrazine for reduction purposes is common in chemical methods [5,6,7,8,9], and condensation, laser ablation, laser pyrolysis, evaporation lithography, and ball milling are widely used in physical methods [10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17] for NP synthesis. Bio nanoparticle synthesizing is a sustainable solution in the nanotechnology discipline since it uses renewable and biodegradable resources (Figure 1).
According to [18], no exact mechanism has been explained for the phytosynthesis of metallic nanoparticles. Similarly, [19] stated that identifying the precise biochemical reactions involved in the green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles remains a challenge. The general method for plant-based nanoparticle production is as follows: first, a plant and its specific part are selected and then crushed, and the plant extract is obtained. The plant extract is processed to remove any impurities. The precursor, typically a metallic solution, is then mixed with the plant extract, resulting in the production of nanoparticles. Maintaining appropriate pH, temperature, and continuous stirring (which ensures the production of uniformly sized nanoparticles) is crucial to facilitate the reaction effectively. A color change in the plant extract can be considered an indication of nanoparticle formation in some nanoparticles, such as Ag and Au, due to surface plasmon resonance (SPR) [20,21,22]. The color change observed during the reaction process serves as an indicator of nanoparticle formation. This change occurs due to SPR, where light interacts with the nanoparticles, causing them to display a different color compared to the bulk material. In addition to SPR, the quantum confinement effect also plays a role in the color variation observed during the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles [23,24].
Microorganisms produce various essential enzymes, while plants contain a range of secondary metabolites, such as phenols, terpenes, and alcohols. These enzymes and metabolites can act as reducing agents, facilitating the synthesis of nanoparticles. Additionally, plant extracts can function as stabilizers, eliminating the need for additional stabilizing agents in the solution [20,21,25]. Ref. [26] reported the presence of phytochemicals such as flavonoids, saponins, triterpenes, and steroids in Tithonia diversifolia. Similarly, [22] confirmed that the presence of functional groups of carbon (C) and oxygen (O) contributes to the stabilization and reduction processes involved in nanoparticle synthesis.
Plant extracts can also function as capping agents, stabilizing nanoparticles during synthesis. FTIR analysis has confirmed the involvement of various carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) bonds in plant extracts, which contribute to the capping process [22,27,28]. Polyphenols, which contain multiple hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to aromatic rings, are highly reactive in chemical reactions. For example, during the synthesis of gold nanoparticles, neighboring hydroxyl groups (typically in the ortho position) in polyphenols bind with gold ions, forming a stable five-membered chelate ring. The ortho-dihydroxyl groups (two -OH groups on adjacent carbons) are oxidized into quinones (C=O groups), while gold ions are reduced (gain electrons) to neutral gold atoms (Au0). This reduction occurs due to the high redox potential of gold [19,20]. Additionally, [19] reported that proteins act as stabilizing agents by providing carbonyl (-C=O) groups. These amino acid residues surround the nanoparticles, preventing aggregation and ensuring stability. FTIR analysis has provided supporting evidence for this stabilization mechanism [24].
The hydrogen radical donates its unpaired electron to silver ions (Ag+) in the solution, reducing them to neutral silver atoms (Ag). These silver atoms then cluster together, forming silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs). Following this reduction process, the leftover eugenol molecule, now containing a phenoxy radical on its oxygen atom, undergoes resonance stabilization. This stabilization occurs as the unpaired electron on the oxygen atom delocalizes across the benzene ring and its double bonds, making the radical more stable and less reactive. These stabilized radicals remain dissolved in the solution, aiding both nanoparticle formation and stabilization [19,29]. Ref. [30] reported that in polyphenolic compounds, neighboring hydroxyl groups form a five-membered chelate ring. Due to the extremely high oxidation-reduction potential of Au3+, the chelated ortho-dihydroxy groups are oxidized to quinones, while Au3+ is simultaneously reduced to Au. The formation of Au NPs occurs through the aggregation of nearby Au atoms, and quinones and polyphenolic compounds subsequently stabilize these nanoparticles. However, there exists several research areas for further development; for example, the efficiency of various natural resources for the green synthesis of nanomaterials has not been fully studied. Importantly, the negative impacts of those nanomaterials are also not sufficiently understood. Therefore, it is mandatory to focus on risk management throughout production, processing, preservation, and discharge [31,32]. Furthermore, the green synthesis of NPs using biological materials and their properties are summarized in Table 1.

2. Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles

Bio-nanomaterials offer significant advantages such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and enhanced biological functionality, making them ideal for several applications in energy storage, environmental remediation, and medicinal applications. However, several challenges still exist, such as synthesis complexity, stability issues, and scalability constraints that need to be addressed through advanced fabrication techniques, hybrid material development, and computational modeling to enhance their performance and applicability.

2.1. Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles in Fuel-Cells

The fuel cell was first introduced by Sir William Grove in the 1830s. Even though the fuel cell has a long history, nowadays, many research works are being carried out that are relevant to fuel cells compared to previous decades [108,109]. The fuel cell is an effective energy converter compared to other relevant energy sources, and it only emits water and heat, making it a more environmentally friendly solution. Due to their higher energy efficiency, fuel cells are currently used in several applications in electric vehicles, alternative power sources, energy-storing methods, and space programs [110,111].
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFs), solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFs), alkaline fuel cells (AFCs), phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC), and molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) can be identified as the different fuel cells types that are currently at the development. These fuel cell types are used in different applications based on their power ratings and operating temperatures. Apart from conventional fuel cells, microbial fuel cells are also being developed by scientists and can also be used as fuel cells, which is an eco-friendly solution. Microbial fuel cells can generate electricity while purifying wastewater using the metabolism power of bacteria.
Apart from the anode, cathode, and electrolyte, electro-catalysts are used in fuel cells to increase the rate of reactions in the fuel cells [112]. Most of the catalysts are noble nanoparticles such as platinum (Pt) and platinum alloys. Currently, there is ongoing research to analyze the different extraction methods of Pt, Pt alloys, and non-precious materials. As an environmentally friendly solution, researchers are trying to develop bio-synthesized nanoparticles as nanocatalysts for fuel cells and microbial fuel cells [113,114,115]. Table 2 represents several recent studies that have been carried out regarding bio-synthesized nanoparticles as catalysts for conventional fuel and microbial fuel cells.

2.2. Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles in Therapeutics

Bio-nanoparticles have garnered significant attention over the past decades owing to their excellent therapeutic capabilities. Their unique physicochemical properties, stability, solubility, and multi-functionality enhance their performance in various therapeutic applications, allowing for enhanced penetration and interaction with biological systems, targeted delivery, and efficacy. Moreover, their biocompatibility and ability to be functionalized for specific targeting further increase their effectiveness and safety in medical treatments [126]. In this section of the review, applications of bio nanoparticles in antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial applications are discussed.
Antioxidants are considered potent therapeutics for a variety of disease conditions. However, the use of these agents is doubtful in conventional therapy due to their instability, low permeability, and poor solubility [127]. Phytochemicals such as phenolic acids, terpenoids, and polyphenols from natural sources accompany substantial antioxidant potential. Bio-nanoparticles, functionalized with antioxidants derived from such bioactive compounds, have emerged as promising candidates for combating oxidative stress and are a heavily studied area in recent decades [128]. Cancer is considered to be an enormous challenge to human health. Bio-nanoparticle-based therapeutics have progressed significantly in the arena of cancer therapy, as conventional chemotherapy poses a multitude of limitations owing to the disadvantageous nature of the tumor microenvironment. Bio-nanoparticles offer a promising alternative to traditional chemotherapeutics with their enhanced capacities, including targeted delivery, selective anticancer effects, sustained release, and lower toxicity [129]. Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cytotoxicity mechanism of bio-nanoparticles, such as generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane, activation of caspase-3, and specific DNA cleavage, all of which lead to apoptotic death of the cancer cell. There have been studies on bio-nanoparticles designed to treat cancer, including metallic nanoparticles from Ag, Au, Zn, and Cu, among the leading anticancer nanoparticles to date [130]. Inflammation is a localized physical response characterized by swelling, redness, pain, and other symptoms in the affected area in response to an infection or injury. Anti-inflammatory agents inhibit specific substances in the body that trigger inflammation [131]. Bio-nanoparticles are potent anti-inflammatory agents owing to their enhanced ability for selectivity and penetration and to restrict inflammatory messengers and enzymes compared to conventional therapy. Several bio-nanoparticles derived from metals and metal oxides, such as Ag, Au, Se, Cu, Ni, ZnO, FeO, and TiO2, are reported to be potent, with anti-inflammatory properties [132]. Multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens are an escalating, highly debilitating threat worldwide, and conventional antibiotic therapeutics are rapidly becoming useless against the most resistant bacterial strains [133]. In pursuing alternative solutions, bio-nanoparticles have shown significant antibacterial activity, as they possess unique physical and chemical properties that enhance their interaction with microbial cells. The mechanisms through which bio-nanoparticles exhibit antibacterial effects include disruption of the bacterial cell membrane, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and interference with cellular processes. The use of natural sources in the synthesis process imparts additional antibacterial properties due to the presence of bioactive compounds. Overall, the application of bio-nanoparticles in antibacterial treatments holds great promise for developing new, effective, and sustainable antimicrobial agents [134]. Table 3 provides examples of bio-nanoparticles synthesized from biological sources, including plants, fungi, bacteria, and algae, with their reported antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial activities.

2.3. Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles in Waste Water Treatment

Due to the unique properties such as high surface area, reactivity, and functionality of bio-nanoparticles, they have emerged as highly effective agents in the wastewater treatment industry. Their properties lead to the removal of a wide range of contaminants, including heavy metals, organic pollutants, and pathogenic microorganisms. The wastewater or effluent containing non-biodegradable dyes and organic pollutants into the water reservoirs is mainly discharged from various industries, factories, and laboratories without any treatment, and it leads to a global environmental and health hazard [153]. Large quantities of dyes are used in many industrial applications such as textiles, papers, leathers, laser materials, laser printing, foodstuffs, cosmetics, xerography, gasoline, etc. And byproducts discarded from industries contain heavy metal ions and dyes, or both in most cases [154]. Furthermore, according to the estimated data, the total worldwide production of dyes is lost in their synthesis and dyeing process, which is over 15% [155]. The studies proved that most of these dyes are toxic and carcinogenic and reduce the light penetration of the aqueous systems. As a result, it causes serious concern to society due to the complex structures and non-biodegradable nature. This leads to negative effects on photosynthesis, is toxic for living organisms, is harmful to human health, and contributes significantly to the overall imbalance of the ecosystem [156].
Due to the high surface area and affinity for metal ions, carbon-based and metal-oxide nanoparticles have shown exceptional adsorption capacity on heavy metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium from wastewater [157,158]. Nanoparticles such as titanium dioxide show photocatalytic activity, and they are employed to break down organic contaminants, including pesticides, dyes, and pharmaceutical residues, converting them into less harmful substances. TiO2 and other metal oxides demonstrate high photocatalytic activity, but their effectiveness depends on several conditions, such as pH level, light intensity, and the presence of additional catalysts. pH levels, can affect the surface charge and light intensity directly impacts the electron-hole pairs which is a critical factor for photocatalysis. At the same time the availability of a co-catalysts can improve the overall efficiency [159]. Furthermore, silver and gold nanoparticles exhibit potential antimicrobial effects against harmful viruses and bacteria [160]. Moreover, the efficiency and sustainability of the wastewater treatment process are enhanced by magnetically responsive nanoparticles due to their easy recovery and reusable properties. Table 4 demonstrates a summary of recent research works carried out by scientists on the applications of bio-based nanomaterials in wastewater treatment. These advanced bio-nanomaterials provide a versatile and robust solution for addressing the difficult challenges of wastewater treatment, improving the efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability while contributing to the protection of public health and the environment. The studies summarized in Table 4 are conducted as laboratory based research activities. Even though the results from these studies demonstrate promising outcomes, it should be noted that these research are conducted under controlled laboratory conditions. In industrial applications there may be number of additional challenges such as variations in environmental conditions, cost effectiveness and scalability.

2.4. Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles in the Energy Industry

The increasing demand for energy due to rapid technological advancement and global population growth has caused a formidable challenge for human existence [176]. Global power generation is moving towards greener generation methods, discouraging conventional methods such as coal power, fossil fuel, natural gas, etc., to overcome environmental challenges such as global warming [177,178]. Throughout the last few decades, researchers have been working on finding a successful alternative to fossil fuels for power generation. As a result, many promising biofuels have emerged, such as bioethanol, biogas, biohydrogen, biodiesel, algal biofuels [179,180], bio-methanol, etc. However, biofuels still must achieve many milestones in order to challenge the fossil fuel industry. With the recent development of nanotechnology, a great deal of research has been conducted to improve the production efficiency of biofuels and the performance of biofuels using nanotechnology [181,182,183]. Nanoparticles can improve the efficiency of the manufacturing process of biofuels, as they have higher reactive surfaces [184]. Today, scientists have taken one step further by introducing bio-nanotechnology, a combination of biology and nanotechnology, to the energy sector, which results in more environmentally friendly outcomes. At the same time, the health-related concerns to the human body from the applications of nanotechnology are comparatively reduced with bio-nanotechnology [185].
There are a number of different applications of bio-nanotechnology in the energy industry. When considering the most recent research trends, the green synthesis of nanoparticles from plants is rapidly increasing in popularity due to environmental friendliness and health concerns due to the utility of toxic chemicals. The bio-nanoparticles that various plants synthesize are used in numerous types of research to observe their performance as catalysts for the biofuel production process. In Table 5, a summary of the recent research related to the enhancement of biofuel production using bio-nano catalysts is presented. All the nanoparticles used were synthesized using different plant components, such as orange peels [185], pomegranate peels [186], Euphorbia royleana leaves [187], rice husk [188], and also animal wastes such as chicken-egg shell [189], etc. All the research has shown very positive results in improving the production efficiency of biofuels, which have a promising number of industrial applications for nanotechnology in the future energy sector.

3. Conclusions

Green synthesis of BNPs using plants, bacteria, fungi, and algae presents a promising and eco-friendly alternative to conventional methods. The diverse biochemical properties of these biological entities enable the production of nanoparticles with varied shapes and sizes, enhancing their applicability across multiple fields. BNPs have shown significant potential in therapeutics as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer agents. Additionally, they are being integrated into fuel cells and energy generation systems, providing green energy solutions. In wastewater treatment, BNPs offer an effective and environmentally friendly approach to removing heavy metals, organic pollutants, and microbial contaminants. However, further research is essential to optimize synthesis processes, fully elucidate their mechanisms of action, and expand the scope of their applications. BNPs can address some of the pressing challenges in medicine, energy, and environmental sustainability, paving the way for innovative and sustainable technological advancements. The continued exploration and development of bio-nanoparticles for advancements in material engineering, hybridization strategies, and computational design hold great promise for the future, offering sustainable solutions that align with the growing demand for environmentally conscious technologies.

Author Contributions

M.D.K.M.G., conceptualization, writing—original draft and writing—review and editing; G.D.C.P.G., conceptualization and writing—original draft; C.J.A., conceptualization and writing—original draft; D.K.A.I., conceptualization and writing—original draft; H.V.V.P., conceptualization and writing—original draft; S.S.M., writing—original draft; K.R.K., supervision; P.K.G.S.S.B., supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This review was supported by the Science and Technology Human Resource Development Project, Ministry of Education, Sri Lanka, funded by the Asian Development Bank (Grant No CRG-R2-SB-1).

Data Availability Statement

No data were used for the research described in the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
ATR-FTIRAttenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
BETBrunauer–Emmett–Teller
DLS Dynamic light scattering
EDAXEnergy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
EDSEnergy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
FESEMField emission scanning electron microscopy
FESEM-EDXField emission scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
FTIRFourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
HRSEMHigh-resolution scanning electron microscopy
HRTEMHigh-resolution transmission electron microscopy
SEMScanning electron microscopy
SEM-EDXScanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
TEMTransmission electron microscopy
TGAThermogravimetric analyzer
UV–visUltraviolet–visible spectrophotometer

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Figure 1. Green synthesis of bio-nanoparticles from plants.
Figure 1. Green synthesis of bio-nanoparticles from plants.
Nanomaterials 15 00528 g001
Table 1. Green synthesis of NPs using biological materials.
Table 1. Green synthesis of NPs using biological materials.
Biological MaterialNameMorphologyNanoparticle Size (nm)NanoparticleReference
PlantAbutilon indicum leavesHexagonal 16CuO[33]
Aloe vera leavesSpherical15–50Ag[34]
Bergenia ciliata
Rhizome
Spherical20CuO[35]
Capparis spinosa tissuesSpherical and semispherical15–30Ag[36]
Catharanthus roseus leavesHexagonal35ZnO[37]
Coriandrum sativum leavesSpherical15–50Ag[34]
Corymbia citriodora leavesNeedle21–28Mn[38]
Cuminum cyminum seedsCrystalline15TiO2[39]
Cymbopogon citratus leavesSpherical15–50Ag[34]
Cymbopogon olivieriSpherical28ZnO[40]
Eucalyptus robusta leavesSpherical16–23Mn[38]
Euphorbia helioscopia leavesCrystalline30–100Ag[41]
Euphorbia pulcherrima flowersCubical16–54CuO[42]
Fragaria ananassa fruitsSpherical10–30Cu[43]
Hypericum perforatum leavesSpherical20–50MnO2[44]
Lemna minor tissuesSpherical10–20ZnO[45]
Melia azedarach leavesCrystalline and spherical50–71TiO2[46]
Mentha arvensis leavesSpherical15–50Ag[34]
Nerium oleander leavesSpherical26Cu[47]
Ocimum sanctum leafGranular -CuO[48]
Paullinia cupana Kunth leaf extractSpherical morphology39–126 Ag[49]
Phoenix dactylifera L leavesCubic to spherical12–97Ag[50]
Phyllanthus emblica
fruit
Large, irregularly shaped flakes-Cr2O3[51]
Saccharum officinarum stemSpherical, square, cube, plate, rectangular 29–60CuO[52]
Triticum aestivum seedSpherical 21–42 CuO[53]
BacteriaAquaspirillum magnetotacticumOctahedral prism40–50Fe2O3[54]
Arthrobacter gangotriensisSpherical5–6Ag[55]
Arthrobacter kerguelensisSpherical5Ag[55]
Bacillus cecembensisSpherical7Ag[55]
Bacillus cereusSpherical20–40Ag[56]
Bacillus indicus-4–6Ag[55]
Bacillus megaterium D01Spherical2.5Au[57]
Bacillus subtilis 168Hexagonal-octahedral5–50Au[58]
Escherichia coliWurtzite structure2–5CdS[59]
Escherichia coli DH 5αSpherical8–25Au[60]
Klebsiella aerogenes-20–200CdS[61]
Lactobacillus caseiSpherical20–50Ag[62]
Magnetospirillum magnetotacticumChain47Fe3O4[63]
Plectonemaboryanum UTEX 485Cubic, octahedral10–25Au[64]
Pseudomonas antarcticaSpherical11–12Ag[55]
Pseudomonas meridianaSpherical5–6Ag[55]
Pseudomonas proteolyticaSpherical7Ag[55]
Rhodopseudomonas capsulateSpherical10–20Au[65]
Serratia sp. (ZTB29)Polydisperse, spherical20–40CuO[66]
Shewanella oneidensis-1–5UO2[67]
Shewanella algaTriangular10–20Au[68]
FungiAlternata alternateSpherical20–60Ag[69]
Aspergillus flavus-1–8Ag[70]
Aspergillus flavus TFR7Spherical12–15TiO2[71]
Aspergillus fumigatesSpherical5–25Ag[72]
Aspergillus nigerSpherical20Ag[73]
Aspergillus terreusSpherical8ZnO[74]
Cariolus versicolorSpherical25–75Ag[75]
Cladosporium cladosporioidesSpherical10–100Ag[76]
Fusarium oxysporumSpherical8–14Au-Ag alloy[77]
Fusarium semitectumCrystalline spherical10–60Ag[78]
Fusarium solaniSpherical5–35Ag[79]
Penicillium brecompactumCrystalline spherical23–105Ag[80]
Penicillium fellutanumSpherical5–25Ag[81]
Phanerochaete chrysosporiumPyramidal50–200Ag[82]
Phoma glomerataSpherical60–80Ag[83]
Rhizopus nigricansRound35–40Ag[84]
Rhizopus stoloniferSpherical25–30, 1–5Ag
Au
[85]
Saccharimyces cerevisae brothSpherical4–15Ag, Au[86]
Trichoderma virideSpherical5–40Ag[87]
Trichothecium sp.Spherical, rod-like, triangular10–25Au[88]
VerticilliumSpherical21–25Ag[89]
Verticillium luteoalbumTriangular, hexagonal10Au[90]
AlgaeBifurcaria bifurcateCrystalline5–45CuO[91]
Caulerpa racemosaSpherical and triangular5–25Ag[92]
Chaetomorpha linumNano-clusters3–44Ag[93]
Chlamydomonas reinhardtiiRound/rectangular5–35Ag[94]
Chlorella vulgarisCrystalline2–10Au[95]
Colpmenia sinusaSpherical20Ag [96]
Cystophora moniliformisSpherical50–100Ag[97]
Ecklonia cavaSpherical and triangular30Au[98]
Enteromorpha flexuosaSpherical2–32Ag [99]
Enteromorpha flexuosaSpherical2–32Ag [99]
Gracilaria gracilisCrystalline25–50ZnO [100]
Jania rubinsSpherical12Ag[96]
Lemanea fluviatilisSpherical5–15Au[101]
Padina gymnosporaSpherical53–67Au[102]
Prasiola crispaSpherical5–25Au[103]
Pterocladia capillacaeSpherical7Ag[96]
Sargassum muticumCubic18Fe3O4[104]
Sargassum muticumHexagonal wurtzite30–57ZnO[105]
Sargassum muticumSpherical5.4Au[106]
Tetraselmis kochinensisSpherical and triangular5–35 Au[107]
Ulva faciataSpherical7Ag[96]
Table 2. Bio-synthesized nanoparticle applications in fuel-cells.
Table 2. Bio-synthesized nanoparticle applications in fuel-cells.
Biological MaterialSynthesized NPCharacterization TechniqueNanoparticle Size and
Morphology
ApplicationMethod/
Measurement
ResultsRef.
Escherichia coli MC4100E. coli-Pt/Pd (10%: 10%), E-coil-Pt (10%), and E-coil-Pd (10%) alloyed catalystsTransmission electron microscope (TEM)
X-ray diffraction (XRD)
5.2 nmFuel cell catalysts in polymer electrolyte fuel cell catalystsThe nanoparticles were synthesized by initially forming Pd nanoparticles on the E. coli cells, followed by Pt synthesis mediated by the Pd nanoparticles reducing Pt (IV) using K2PtCl6 and Na2PdCl4.E. coli-Pt/Pd (10%:10%) showed better ECSA (electrochemical loaded area) compared to the other two samples.[116]
Escherichia coli MC4100Bio-Pd (desulfurized) nanoparticles
Bio-Pd (E-coil)
nanoparticles
TEM 30 nmFuel cell catalysts in proton exchange fuel cell catalystsFour electrodes were manufactured:
1—Commercial Pt nanoparticles;
2—Commercial Pd nanoparticles;
3—Desulfurized Bio-Pd nanoparticles;
4—E-coil bio-nanoparticles.
Maximum power generated by each electrode was 0.13, 0.10, 0.11, and 0.04 watts.[117]
Dairy wastewaterCu-doped FeOXRD
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
70–200 nmAnode catalysts in a microbial fuel cellCopper-doped iron oxide nanoparticles (Cu-doped FeO) were synthesized using phyto-compounds of the A. blitum plant. 161.5 W/m2 peak power density was delivered at 270 A/m2 current density.[118]
CitrobacterBio-Pd nanoparticlesSEM
XRD
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS)
15.65–11.37 nmElectrocatalysts for anion exchange membrane fuel cellsBio-Pd was extracted from Pd (II) solution in the basal mineral medium using Citrobacter; 4 mg/cm2 and 2 mg/cm2 Bio-Pd nanoparticles were applied as anode catalysts.4 mg/cm2 solution achieved 539.3 mW/cm2 maximum power density, which is 31.1% and 59.6% higher than that of 2 mg/cm2 solution and carbon rod.[119]
Bean sproutBio-derived Co2P nanoparticlesSEM
TEM
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
XRD
10–100 nmElectrocatalysts for anion exchange membrane fuel cellsCo2P nanoparticles were synthesized using the NH3 heat treatment.Maximum power density of 172.2 mW/cm2 was achieved.[120]
Pomegranate peelPd-NiO/C nanocatalystXPS
XRD
High-resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM)
SEM
5 nmPd support catalyst for
alkaline direct ethanol fuel cell and CO2 electro-reduction
NiO nanoparticles were extracted from pomegranate, and Pd was added through the Pd (II) solution.Cell output was reported as 117 mW.[121]
Anaerobic digester sludgeBiosynthesized FeS nanoparticlesSEM
XPS
Field emission scanning Electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy (FESEM-EDX)
XRD
29.97 ± 7.1 nmAnode of a microbial fuel cellFeS was extracted from FeCl3 and Na2S2O3 using a biofilmA maximum power density of 519 W/m2 was obtained [122]
Banana, pineapple peels, and sugarcane bagasseBiogenic platinum nanoparticlesUV–visible spectrophotometer
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
XRD
FESEM
Spherical shape
2–17 nm
For the improved methanol oxidation reaction in direct methanol fuel cellBiosynthesis from banana peel, pineapple peel, and sugarcane bagasse.ECSA values were reported for Pt extracted from sugarcane bagasse, banana peels, and pineapple peels as 94.58, 9.91, and 1.69 m2/g, respectively.[123]
Jackfruit seedPt ornamented N-doped porous carbonXPS
TEM
5.12 nmA catalyst for the oxygen reduction reactionCarbon nanoparticles were derived from jackfruit seed.ECSA of 68.5 m2/g and current density of 59.7 mA/cm2.[124]
Butterfly wingsBio-carbon substrate (porous carbon) SEM
TEM
XRD
2.4–10 nmA catalyst for the oxygen reduction reactionSynthesized porous carbon from the black forewing of the butterfly Troides aeacus and synthesized Co3O4/CW.Current density of 4.59 mA/cm2.[125]
Table 3. Therapeutic applications of green synthesized bio-nanoparticles.
Table 3. Therapeutic applications of green synthesized bio-nanoparticles.
Biological MaterialSynthesized NPCharacterization TechniqueCharacteristics of NP (Size and Morphology)ApplicationMethod/MeasurementResultsReferences
Lactobacillus casei 393 cultureSeTEM
SEM
XPS
EDX
FTIR
50–80 nm
Spherical
Antioxidant H2O2-induced cell oxidative damage model and diquat-induced oxidative damage modelInhibition of H2O2-induced oxidative damage and apoptosis and diquat-caused cytotoxicity in intestinal epithelial cells[135]
Cell-free extracts of four strains of non-pathogenic Enterococcus sp.AuUV–vis
FTIR
TEM
EDX
8–50 nm
Spherical
AntioxidantDPPH free radical scavenging assaySignificant antioxidant activity of 33.24–51.47%[136]
Aspergillus versicolor ENT7AgUV–vis
FTIR
TEM
XRD
3–40 nm
Spherical
AntioxidantDPPH free radical scavenging assayAntioxidant potential with IC50 value of 60.64 lg/mL[137]
Marine endophytic fungi Cladosporium cladosporioidesAuUV–vis
FE-SEM
XRD
FTIR
DLS
EDX
30–60 nm
Rough surface
AntioxidantDPPH free radical scavenging assay, ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assayDose-dependent DPPH scavenging activity and moderate activity on FRAP-1.51 ± 0.03 mg of AAE/g sample[138]
Red alga, Lemanea fluviatilis (L.)AuUV–vis
XRD
TEM
FT-IR
DLS
5–15 nm
Nearly spherical, poly-dispersed, with the tendency to assemble together to form a chain-like structure
AntioxidantDPPH free radical scavenging assayDose-dependent DPPH scavenging activity[101]
Aqueous extract of aerial parts of Alternanthera sessilisAgUV–vis
TEM
10–30 nm
Spherical
AnticancerMTT assay against breast cancer MCF-7 cell lineProminent anticancer activity, complete cell inhibition (99%) of MCF-7 cell line with 25 μg/mL, IC50 = 3.04 μg/mL[139]
Vitex negundo L leaf extract AgUV–vis
FESEM
TEM
FTIR
XRD
EDX
5 to 47 nm
Spherical and well dispersed
AnticancerMTT assay against human colon HCT15 cancer cell line High anticancer effects with IC50 of 20 μg/mL [140]
Mimosa pudica leaf extractAuUV–vis
FTIR
XRD
HR-TEM
12.5 nm
Predominantly spherical and well dispersed
AnticancerMTT assay against breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7)Anticancer activity with IC50 of 4 µg/mL for MDA-MB-231 and IC50 of 6 µg/mL for MCF-7 [141]
Leaf extracts of Olea europaeaCuOXRD
FTIR
SEM
TEM
20–50 nm
Spherical, smooth surfaces
AnticancerMTT assay against AMJ-13 and SKOV-3 cancer cell linesCytotoxicity of IC50 for Brest cancer-AMJ-13—1.47 μg/mL and Ovarian cancer-SKOV-3—2.27 μg/mL[142]
Aspergillus niger strain STA9CuUV–vis
FTIR
DLS
TEM
SEM
5 to 100 nm
Spherical, poly-dispersed
AnticancerMTT assay against human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines (Huh-7) Significant cytotoxic effect against Huh-7 with IC50 3.09 μg/mL value[143]
Fruit extract of Sambucus nigraAgUV–vis
FTIR
XRD
TEM
20–80 nm
Spherical
Anti-inflammatory HaCaT cells exposed to UVB radiation, acute inflammation modelSignificant anti-inflammatory activity with a decrease in cytokine production and reduction in edema formation[144]
European cranberry bush (Viburnum opulus) fruit extractAgUV–vis
FTIR
XRD
TEM
10–50 nm
Spherical
Anti-inflammatory HaCaT cell line, exposed to UVB radiation, acute inflammation model Significant anti-inflammatory activity with a decrease in cytokine production and reduction in edema formation[145]
Dalbergiaspinosa leaf extractAgUV–vis
FTIR
HR-TEM
18 8 ±4 nm
Spherical
Anti-inflammatory Human RBC membrane stabilization assayModerate anti-inflammatory effects with red blood cell membrane stabilization[146]
Prunus domestica gum extractAuUV–vis
FTIR
SEM
EDX
7–30 nm
Spherical
Anti-inflammatory Carrageenan-induced paw edema modelSignificant anti-inflammatory effects by reducing paw edema[147]
Centratherum punctatum Cass. leaf extractAgUV–vis
FTIR
XRD
SEM
TEM
XPS
50–100 nm
Spherical
Anti-inflammatory In vitro protein denaturation inhibition assay, human RBC membrane stabilization assay, and proteinase inhibitory assay Significant anti-inflammatory effects via protein denaturation inhibition, RBC membrane stabilization, and proteinase inhibition[148]
Callus extract of Cinnamonum camphoraAgUV–vis
TEM
SEM-EDX
DLS
FT-IR
XRD
5.47–9.48 nm
Spherical, homogenous distribution
AntibacterialMinimum inhibitory effect (MIC) via well diffusion method against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and B. subtilisMIC = 10 µg/mL for S. aureus and B. subtilis; MIC = 20 µg/mL for E. coli and P. aeruginosa[149]
Aspergillus niger strain STA9CuUV–vis
FTIR
SEM
TEM
DLS
5 to 100 nm
Spherical, poly-distributed
AntibacterialIn vitro agar well diffusion assay against E. coli, S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, Micrococcus luteus, and B. subtilis.Inhibition zone of 19, 21, 16, 20, and 17 mm against E. coli, S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, Micrococcus luteus, and B. subtilis, respectively[143]
Bacillus subtilis cultureAgUV–vis
TEM
FT-IR
3–20 nm
Spherical or roughly spherical
AntibacterialMinimum inhibitory effect (MIC) via agar disc diffusion assay against MRSA, S. epidermidis, K. pneumoniae, E. coli, and C. albicansSignificant antimicrobial efficacy; MIC of 230, 180, 200, 100, and 0.300 mgmL−1 for MRSA, S. epidermidis, E. coli, C. albicans, and K. pneumonia, respectively.[150]
Psidium guajava leaf extractFeOXRD
SEM
HR-TEM
UV–vis
1–6 nm
Morphology: ND
AntibacterialMinimum inhibitory effect (MIC) via well diffusion method against S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Shigella, S. typhi, and PasteurellaStrong antibacterial activity chiefly against E. coli and S. aureus at low concentration[134]
Ethanolic extract from Moringa oleifera seed residueAgSEM
XRD
DLS
90–180 nm
Spherical
AntibacterialGrowth inhibition of E. coli BL21(DE3)Significant inhibition of bacterial growth, elongating the lag phase in a dose-dependent manner[151]
Tetraclinis articulata leaf extractAgUV–vis
SEM
FTIR
Spherical
80 nm
Anti-inflammatory
Antioxidant
Cytotoxicity
Cell proliferation testsSignificant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacity, with an activity level similar to the control but without causing harm to cells[152]
Table 4. Bio-synthesized nanoparticle applications in wastewater treatment.
Table 4. Bio-synthesized nanoparticle applications in wastewater treatment.
Biological MaterialSynthesized NPCharacterization TechniqueCharacteristics of NP (Size and Morphology)ApplicationMethod/MeasurementResultsRef.
Citrus aurantifolia (keylime)CuOXRD
UV–vis
SEM
FTIR
Size of ~22 nm and 3.48–
3.51 eV band gap
Degradation of organic pollutantsPhotocatalytic activity
antibacterial activity
91% dye removal; exhibited good antibacterial activity[161]
Cupressus sempervirens (Mediterranean cypress)CuFe2O4XPS
AFM
SEM
TEM
Nanosheet thickness ∼2.5 nm
Size 20–30 nm
Degradation of organic pollutantsCatalytic activity measurementsObserved greater catalytic performances, reusability, and recovery[162]
Nerium oleanderCuOFTIR
SEM
EDX
XRD
Size 21 nmDegradation of organic pollutantsAdsorbent measurementsEffective and eco-friendly nano-adsorbent treatment ability shown for the colored water[163]
Sal seed de-oiled cakeCuOUV–vis Degradation of organic pollutantsAdsorbent measurementsRemoved three azo dyes, namely Erichrome black T (EBT), Congo red (CR), and reactive violet 1 (RV1). Performed 80% dye removal efficiency, with re-usability[164]
Portulaca oleraceaCuOUV–vis
FTIR
XRD
TEM
EDX
DLS
Zeta potential
Spherical and crystalline
Size 5–30 nm
Surface plasmon resonance 275 nm
Degradation of organic pollutantsAntimicrobial activity and tanning wastewater treatmentThe catalytic activity of nanoparticles in darkness recorded 70.3% decolorization, while sunlight irradiation improved the catalytic activity of nanoparticles to 88.6%; reduced the heavy metal percentage in wastewater[165]
Brassica leafCuOEDX
FTIR
SEM
XRD
UV–vis
TEM
EDAX
Size 50 nmDegradation of organic pollutantsAdsorbent measurements
Determination of pH (point of zero charge)
The percentage of dye adsorbent increased up to 99%; the dye removal efficiency decreased with increasing the amaranth dye concentration, with point of zero charge at pH 7.7[166]
Ruellia tuberosaZnOUV–vis
FTIR
TEM
EDAX
Rod-shaped nanoparticles
Size 40–50 nm
Degradation of organic pollutantsPhotocatalytic property
Degradation of synthetic dyes
Maximum dye removal percentages were 94% for methylene blue and 92% for malachite green[167]
Phoenix dactylifera wasteZnOUV–vis
EDX
XPS
FTIR
XRD
Spherical shape nanoparticles
Size 30 nm
Degradation of organic pollutants
Disinfection
Dye degradation and antibacterial performance (disc-diffusion method)Degradation efficiency was 90% for methylene blue and eosin yellow dyes; demonstrated significant antibacterial effects on Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains[168]
Eucalyptus spp. Fresh, green leavesZnOFESEM
XRD
BET
TGA
HRTEM
EDX
FTIR
Irregular in shape
Size 40 nm
Nanoparticles contained 76.6% zinc and 23.3% oxygen
Degradation of organic pollutantsDye adsorption measurements (Langmuir and
Temkin isotherm models)
pH measurements
Maximum adsorption capacities were 48.3 mg/g for Congo red dye and 169.5 mg/g for malachite green dye; maximum removal was achieved at pH 6.0 and pH 8.0 for Congo red and malachite green dyes, respectively.[169]
Persea americana
(Avocado) oil
AuUV–vis
TEM
FTIR
DLS
XRD
Spherical, decahedron, and triangular
48.8 ± 24.8 nm
Degradation of organic pollutants
Removal of heavy metals
Antioxidant activity Dye adsorption measurements
Photocatalytic activity
Enhanced antioxidant 30%, 40 μL photocatalytic decomposition of the methylene blue > 84%, 10 mg/L,
0.0057664 min
[170]
Alpinia nigra leafAuUV–vis
FTIR
XRD
TEM
Spherical
21.52 nm
Degradation of organic pollutants;
Disinfection
Antioxidant activity
Antimicrobial activity
Photocatalytic activity
Antioxidant activity with IC50 value of 52.16 µg/mL; resistance to the growth of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria[171]
Allium cepaAgSEM
TEM
XRD
ATR-FTIR
Spherical
50–100 nm
Degradation of organic pollutantsPhotocatalytic activity
Antimicrobial activity
Photocatalytic decomposition of the methylene blue > 80%[172]
Cynara cardunculus
Leaf
Fe3O4UV–vis
SEM
XRD
Semi-spherical,
aggregated
13.5 nm
Degradation of organic pollutants (kinetic adsorption model)Photocatalytic activityPhotocatalytic decomposition of the methylene blue > 90%[173]
Plantago major leafFeOUV–vis
TEM
XRD
FTIR
Spherical
4.6–30.6 nm
Degradation of organic pollutantsPhotocatalytic activityMethyl orange dye removal efficiency of 83.33% after a 6 h process[174]
Moringa oleifera leafZnO NPUV–vis
XRD
FE-SEM
TEM
Spherical
14 nm
Effectively breaking down the organic compounds present in synthetic petroleum wastewaterPhotocatalytic activityDegradation efficiency of green-ZnO, which, within 180 min of irradiation, achieved removal rates of 51%, 52%, 88%, and 93% for phenol and O-Cresol[175]
Table 5. Recent studies on the utilization of bio nano-catalysts for biofuel production.
Table 5. Recent studies on the utilization of bio nano-catalysts for biofuel production.
Biological MaterialSynthesized NPCharacterization TechniqueCharacters of NP (Size and Morphology)ApplicationMethod/MeasurementResultsRef.
Orange peelCarbon quantum dotsDLS
XRD
TEM
FTIR
-Bio-nano emulsion fuel;
Fuel was prepared with diesel, biodiesel, nanoparticles, and distilled water. The study was performed to observe the performance and emission of the bio-nano emulsion fuel using a four-stroke engine.
Fuel samples were prepared using three steps. Water was used as an intermediate fuel, as carbon quantum dots are highly stable in water. Fatty acids and neutral salt were used to stabilize water in diesel. Engine power, fuel consumption, and torque were measured.The optimum concentration ratio of water 5 vol%/nanoparticle 60 ppm resulted in a 21% power increase at 2700 rpm[185]
Pomegranate peelMagnetic Fe2O3XRD
DLS
Zeta potential analysis
SEM
EDX
28–80 nm
Hexagonal/round-shaped
Biodiesel production;
the study was performed to produce biodiesel from hazardous algae in water using bio-synthesized magnetic nanomaterials.
The optimum microalgae harvest conditions were determined using RSM (response surface methodology). Experimental data were obtained for the amount of γ-Fe2O3, stirring speed, mixing time, and temperature. The optimal microalgae harvest conditions were identified as 56 mg L−1, 310 rpm, 48 s, and 22.5 °C, respectively. The biodiesel produced satisfied the ASTM D6751 standard, the specification for biodiesel fuel, excluding acid levels.[186]
Chicken-egg shell Calcium oxide (CaO)FTIR
TEM
XRD
SEM
BET
75 nm
Heterogeneous
Biodiesel production;
the study was performed to produce biodiesel from microalgae dry biomass using bio-calcium oxide (CaO) as a nanocatalyst.
The transesterification process was used to produce biodiesel with chicken-egg shell waste-synthesized calcium oxide (CaO) nanocatalysts. Reaction parameters such as catalyst ratio, reaction time, and interactions with stirring rate were studied with RSM (response surface methodology).The 1.7% (w/w) nanocatalysts ratio provided the optimum reaction performance with 86.41% biodiesel yield. [189]
Euphorbia royleana plantBi2O3 (bismuth oxide)XRD
SEM
EDX
FTIR
-Biodiesel production;
the study was performed to produce biodiesel from the Cannabis sativa plant, and bio-synthesized Bi2O3
(bismuth oxide) nanoparticles were used as a nanocatalysts.
The seed oil of Cannabis sativa was used as the biomass for the synthesis of biodiesel. Reaction parameters of the transesterification reaction, such as catalyst concentration, reaction time, molar ratio, and temperature, were analyzed.The 1.5 w/w% Bi2O3 (bismuth oxide) catalyst sample provided the optimum reaction conditions with 92% methyl ester yield at 12:1 methanol/oil, 92 °C, 210 min reaction duration. [187]
Rice huskNano-bifunctional super magnetic RHC/K2O/Fe catalystsXRD
FTIR
BET
TGA
VSM
-Biodiesel production;
the study was performed to study the effect of RHC/K2O/Fe catalyst
for the transesterification of used cooking oil to produce biodiesel.
The reaction parameters such as temperature, reaction duration, methanol/oil molar ratio, and catalyst concentration were analyzed. The RHC/K2O-20%/Fe-5% catalyst 4 wt% sample provided the optimum reaction conditions with a yield of 98.6% at 75 °C, 4 h reaction time, and methanol/oil 12:1.[188]
Madhuca indica oilReusable magnetic multimetal nano-catalyst (Fe3O4·Cs2O)XRD
FTIR
FE-SEM
Used for esterification and transesterification of Madhuca indica oil to produce biodiesel.Variables involved in the process include catalyst concentration, the molar ratio of methanol to oil, reaction temperature, and duration of the reaction. A peak conversion of 97.4% was achieved under the specified conditions of an 18:1 methanol-to-oil ratio, 7 wt% catalyst loading, a reaction temperature of 65 °C, and a reaction duration of 300 min. [190]
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Gunasena, M.D.K.M.; Galpaya, G.D.C.P.; Abeygunawardena, C.J.; Induranga, D.K.A.; Priyadarshana, H.V.V.; Millavithanachchi, S.S.; Bandara, P.K.G.S.S.; Koswattage, K.R. Advancements in Bio-Nanotechnology: Green Synthesis and Emerging Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles. Nanomaterials 2025, 15, 528. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070528

AMA Style

Gunasena MDKM, Galpaya GDCP, Abeygunawardena CJ, Induranga DKA, Priyadarshana HVV, Millavithanachchi SS, Bandara PKGSS, Koswattage KR. Advancements in Bio-Nanotechnology: Green Synthesis and Emerging Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles. Nanomaterials. 2025; 15(7):528. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070528

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gunasena, M. D. K. M., G. D. C. P. Galpaya, C. J. Abeygunawardena, D. K. A. Induranga, H. V. V. Priyadarshana, S. S. Millavithanachchi, P. K. G. S. S. Bandara, and K. R. Koswattage. 2025. "Advancements in Bio-Nanotechnology: Green Synthesis and Emerging Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles" Nanomaterials 15, no. 7: 528. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070528

APA Style

Gunasena, M. D. K. M., Galpaya, G. D. C. P., Abeygunawardena, C. J., Induranga, D. K. A., Priyadarshana, H. V. V., Millavithanachchi, S. S., Bandara, P. K. G. S. S., & Koswattage, K. R. (2025). Advancements in Bio-Nanotechnology: Green Synthesis and Emerging Applications of Bio-Nanoparticles. Nanomaterials, 15(7), 528. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070528

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