Advances in the Robustness of Wearable Electronic Textiles: Strategies, Stability, Washability and Perspective
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Architecture of E-Textiles
2.1. Fiber Shaped Durable E-Textiles
2.2. Yarn Shaped Durable E-Textiles
2.3. Fabric Shaped Durable E-Textiles
3. Interconnections
4. Durability Enhancement Strategies
Surface Modification
5. Wash Reality
5.1. Washing Stresses
5.2. Standardized Protocols
6. Conclusions and Prospects
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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- AATCC EP13; Evaluation Procedure of Electrical Resistance of Electronically-Integrated Textiles. AATCC: Durham, NC, USA, 2018. Available online: https://members.aatcc.org/store/ep13/2515/ (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- ASTM WK61480; New Test Method for Durability of Smart Garment Textile Electrodes after Laundering. ASTM: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2022; in press. Available online: https://www.astm.org/workitem-wk61480 (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- ASTM D8248/20; Standard Terminology for Smart Textiles. ASTM: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2020. Available online: https://www.astm.org/d8248-20.html (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- IEC 63203/101/1; Terminology Used in Wearable Electronic Devices and Technologies. IEC: Geveva, Switzerland, 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/62635 (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- IEC 63203/201/3; Determination of Electrical Resistance of Conductive Textiles under Simulated Microclimate. IEC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/64259 (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- IEC 63203/204/1; Test Method for Assessing Washing Durability of Leisurewear and Sportswear e-Textile Systems. IEC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2022; in press. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/62632 (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- IEC TR 63203/250/1; Snap Fastener Connectors between e-Textiles and Detachable Electronic Devices. IEC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/63310 (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- IEC 63203/406/1; Test Method for Measuring Surface Temperature of Wrist-Worn Wearable Electronic Devices While in Contact with Human Skin. IEC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2021. Available online: https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/62634 (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- IPC E.; Textiles Initiative—Get Involved Today. IPC: Bannockburn, IL, USA, 2022. Available online: https://www.ipc.org/solutions/ipc-e-textiles-initiative-get-involved-today (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- IPC-WP-024; IPC White Paper on Reliability and Washability of Smart Textile Structures—Readiness for the Market. IPC: Bannockburn, IL, USA, 2018. Available online: https://shop.ipc.org/general-electronics/whitepapers/024-0-0-english (accessed on 4 May 2022).
- IPC-WP-025; IPC White Paper on A Framework for the Engineering and Design of E-Textiles. IPC: Bannockburn, IL, USA, 2019. Available online: https://shop.ipc.org/general-electronics/whitepapers/025-0-0-english (accessed on 4 May 2022).
Substrate | Nano Materials | Fabrication | Initial Output | Durability | Application | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stability | Washability | ||||||
Pu/PAN core- sheath yarn | GO/CNT ink | Dip Coating | Conductivity, 14.8 S m−1 | ~100,000 operation cycles, 99.3% capacitance retention | 5 cycles, no significant deterioration of capacitance | Pressure sensor, motion sensing | [161] |
Cotton/Lycra yarn | CNT | Dip coating | Resistance, 2.39 kΩ cm−1 | ~Cyclic stretching-releasing for 2000 s, high stability | 10 cycles, slight increase of resistance (ΔR/R0 ~ 1.6) | Strain sensing, thermal heating | [165] |
Pu/PET braided yarn | CNT | Dip Coating | Conductivity, 0.12 kΩ cm−1 | ~1000 stretch-release cycles, no obvious change in resistance | 5 cycles, slight increase (ΔR/R0 ~ 10%) of resistance | Wearable strain sensor | [166] |
PET yarn | Cu | Electroless deposition | Resistance, 0.34 Ω cm−1 | ~1000 tapping cycles, no change of voltage output | 20 cycles, negligible change (<0.6 Ω cm−1) of yarn resistance | Respiratory Monitoring | [167] |
SS/terylene yarn | SS filament | Spinning | Output voltage, 28 V | ~100,000 loading-unloading cycles, excellent stability | 40 cycles, no change of output voltage | Physiological signal monitoring | [168] |
Nylon yarn | Silver | Nano coating | Resistance, 53 Ω m−1 | - | 50 cycles, notable resistance change (108%) | Biomedical textile computing | [169] |
Lyocell yarn | PPy | Polymerization | Conductivity, 21.6 Ω Sq−1 | ~2000 cyclic operations, 90% capacitance retention | 20 cycles, minor variations in electrical response | Wearable electronics | [170] |
Cotton yarn | RGO | Dip Coating | Conductance (2.60 ± 0.1 μS) | ~1000 bending cycles, slight variation (2.42%) in conductance | 5 cycles, minimal (2.96% variation) conductance change | Gas sensing | [171] |
CNT yarn | CNT, PEI, FeCl3 | CVD, Doping | Conductivity, 3695 S cm−1 | ~5000 bending cycles, retained 90% PCE | 10 cycles, slight change of PCE | Solar cell | [172] |
Silk yarn | PEDOT:PSS, EG | Roll to roll dyeing | Conductivity, 70 S cm−1 | ~1000 bending cycles, stable resistance profile | 15 cycles, slight change after 1st wash than resistance kept constant | Wearable keyboard | [173] |
Cotton yarn | RGO | Dip Coating | Resistance, 42.7 kΩ cm−1 | ~1000 bending and compression cycles, stable resistance variance | 10 cycles, resistance increased initially then kept constant | Temperature sensor | [174] |
Silver-plated nylon yarn | CNTs, TPU | Electrospinning | Sensitivity, 84.5 N−1 | ~5000 pressure (5 N) cycles, stable current signal obtained | 2.5 h of washing, constant order of magnitude (only 1.4% variation) | Pressure sensor | [175] |
Substrate | Nano Materials | Fabrication | Initial Output | Durability | Application | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stability | Washability | ||||||
Nylon Fabric | SWCNT, MoO3 | Spray Coating | Resistance, 8.55 MΩ | ~10,000 stretching-releasing cycles, outstanding stability | 10 cycles, no change of relative resistance | Supercapacitor | [188] |
PET Fabric | Ag ink | Inkjet Printing | Conductivity, 0.9 ± 0.02 Ω·sq−1 | ~10,000 bending cycles, no significant change of resistance | 15 cycles, resistance increased by 2 times of initial resistance | Conductive Textiles | [178] |
Nanofiber membrane | Poly(Ionic Liquid) | Electrospinning | Resistance, 3 × 106 Ω·sq−1 | ~300 loading/unloading cycles, no capacitance degradation | 10 cycles, consistent performance | Pressure sensor | [189] |
Woven Fabric | SS core yarn | Weaving | Power density, 9.9 μWm−2 | ~4200 pressing cycles, with no degradation of current output | 4 h washing, constant electrical output (voltage) | Triboelectric sensing | [190] |
Cotton Fabric | PEDOT:PSS | Screen Printing | Resistance, 22.70 kΩ | - | 50 cycles, maintained similar ECG wave pattern | ECG electrode | [191] |
Nylon Fabric | CNT | Screen Printing | Conductivity, 0.2 kΩ·sq−1 | ~2000 bending cycles, no obvious change in resistance | 10 h of water immersion, negligible changes in resistance | Self-powered gesture sensor | [192] |
Cotton Fabric | RGO/ SWCNT | Dip Coating | Gauge factor, 5.4 | ~100,000 bending (11.6% strain) cycles, excellent stability | 10 cycles, no change of surface resistance | Motion sensor | [193] |
Textile Fabric | Gold nanowire | Dip Coating | Resistance, 12.4 MΩ | 30,000 Sec of loading-unloading cycles, constant output signal | 48 h of washing, a slight increase (7.3%) of resistance | Health monitoring | [194] |
Cotton Fabric | RGO | Dip Coating | Sheet resistance, 0.9 kΩ·sq−1 | ~400 bending cycles, Stable resistance change | 10 cycles, slight increase of resistance (0.9 to 1.2 kΩ/sq) | Strain sensor | [195] |
Cotton Fabric | Ag nanowire | Dip and Dry | Power output, 1.25 Wm−2 | ~3000 cyclic bendings, no change of voltage output (Voc) | 15 cycles, output voltages of the electrode preserved well | Nanogenerator | [196] |
Wool Fabric | RGO | Pad Dyeing | Sheet resistance, 12.3 kΩ·sq−1 | ~500 stretch-release cycles, steady change of relative resistance | 10 cycles, moderate increase of resistance (14 to 20.5 kΩ/sq) | Strain sensing | [197] |
Cotton Fabric | PAH, Cu, F-POSS/POTS | Deposition | Sheet resistance, 0.33 Ω·sq−1 | ~5000 bending cycles, slight change of resistance (0.52 ± 0.18 Ω·sq−1) | 100 cycles, Conductivity maintained well (0.32 Ω·sq−1) | Self-cleaning, E-textiles | [198] |
Substrate | Modification | Nano Materials | Fabrication | Initial Output | Durability | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stability | Washability | ||||||
Cotton Fabric | PDA | Ag NW | Dip Coating | Resistance, 7.12 Ω/cm | ~2000 bending cycles, constant resistance change | 10 cycles, insignificant change of resistance | [223] |
Nylon 6 Yarn | BSA | RGO | Electrostatic assembly | Conductivity (>1000 S/m) | ~400 bending cycles, negligible variations in conductivity | 9 cycles, no significant change of conductivity | [224] |
PET Substrate | Plasma Treatment | AgNW, GO | Blade Coating | Conductivity (>20 Ω/Sq.) | ~700 bending/stretching cycles, slight change in ΔR (%) | 6 cycles, no change of sheet resistance | [225] |
PP nonwoven | Plasma Treatment | PEDOT:TOS | Immersion Coating | Conductivity, 2.19 S/cm | ~300 bending cycles, 20% loss of electrical resistance | 3 h of washing, conductivity lost and got stable after 1.5 h | [226] |
Polyester Fabric | PVA | MXene | Dip Coating | Resistance, 930 Ω | ~1000 loading/unloading cycles, no changes in resistance | 30 min washing, good washability | [227] |
Cotton Fabric | Ink with PVA binder | CB | Dip Coating | Resistance, 25–28 kΩ/Sq. | ~1000 bending cycles, durable and reliable performance | 12 cycles, resistance increased initially but was stable | [228] |
Cotton Yarn | β-lactoglobulin | RGO | Dip Coating | Conductance, 0.91 ± 0.32 μS | ~1000 bending cycles, slight changes (~1.47% in SD) | 5 cycles, no dramatic change, (∼0.063 μA in SD) | [229] |
Cotton Fabric | GMA grafting and APA | PANI | In-situ polymerization | Resistance, 2× 109 Ω/Sq. | Reversible conductivity switching (5 cycles) behavior | 40 cycles, with almost no change of conductivity | [230] |
Nylon 6 Fabric | PA/APTES | Cu | Electroless deposition | Resistance, 0.0056 Ω/Sq. | ~1000 bending cycles, stable performance (R/R0 ~ 2.1) | 50 cycles, slight increase in sheet resistance | [231] |
Cotton Fabric | MPTS | Silver | Electroless deposition | Resistance, 0.33 Ω/Sq. | - | 200 cycles, slight increase of resistance (to 2.49 Ω/Sq.) | [232] |
PET Fabric | GA | GO | Laser Scribing | Capacitance (756 µFcm−2) | ~1000 operation cycles, 98.3% capacitance retention | Good wash fastness properties | [233] |
Cotton Yarn | Polyelectrolyte brushes | Cu | Electroless deposition | Conductivity, 1 S/cm | ~30 stretch/release cycles, unchanged conductivity | 5 cycles, no degradation of conductivity | [234] |
Substrate | Nano materials | Encapsulant | Initial Output | Durability | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stability | Washability | |||||
Cotton Fabric | RGO | PE773 | Conductivity, 11.9Ω/Sq. | 15,000 operation cycles, 98% capacitance retention | 10 cycles, 3.5 times increase in resistance | [241] |
PU Yarn | AgNW | Eco-flex | Sensitivity, 0.136 kPa−1 | 5000 loading/unloading cycles (0.05 kPa pressure), stable output signals | 10 cycles, 14% reduction of capacitance | [242] |
Cotton Fabric | MXene | PDMS | Conductivity, 126 S/m | 500 loading/unloading cycles (20% strain), sensing signal hardly changed | 5 h of ultrasonic washing, maintained hydrophobicity (~147°) well | [243] |
PET Fabric | GO ink | HDI | Planar resistance, 861 Ω/sq | 500 stretching-releasing cycles (10% strain), stable negative response | 120 min laundry, insignificant loss of conductivity | [244] |
PET Fiber | PEDOT | PMMA | Electric resistance, 600 Ω cm−1 | 1000 stretching-releasing cycles, gauge factor became relatively stable | - | [245] |
Cotton Fabric | Ag, Cu | Silicon | Resistance, 6 Ω/in. | 500 bending cycles, constant electrical resistance profile | 8 laboratory washing, resistance drastically changed for unencapsulated substrate | [246] |
Textile Substrate | Polymer Solar cell | Acrylic adhesive | Current density, 14.85 mA cm−2 | 1000 repeated bending cycles, insignificant changes in output | 20 cycles, retained 98% of initial efficiency | [247] |
Polymer substrate | Organic photovoltaics | Parylene | PCE, 7.9% | Cyclic compression (43%), 99% PCE retained | 120 min water immersion (5.4% decrease in efficiency) | [248] |
Cotton Fabric | Ag NW | NOA63 | Sheet resistance, 12 Ω/Sq. | 500 bending cycles, no change in luminance | 50 washing cycles, electroluminescence remained almost unchanged | [249] |
TPU Nonwoven | GO, CNC | Hf-SiO2 | Guage Factor, 2.36 × 104 | 1000 tensile cycles at 10% strain, good stability (no apparent fluctuation) | 20 cycles, encapsulated substrate kept unchanged, R/R0 ~ 15 for bare substrate | [250] |
Woven Fabric | PEDOT:PSS, RGO | EG, DMSO | Sheet resistance, 10–15 Ω | 10,000 bending cycles, no degradation in sheet resistance | 25 washing cycles, sheet resistance increased from 20 Ω to 90 Ω | [251] |
Cotton Fabric | PPy, MXene | HDTMS | Water contact angle, 158° | Long-term stability (>1000 bending cycles) | 5 h ultrasonication, WCA decreased to 144° but remained hydrophobic | [252] |
Spacer Fabric | SWCNT, Ag | DM-SIP-2500 | Sensitivity, 4.2 × 10−2 kPa−1 | 20,000 loading/unloading cycles, uniform capacitive changes (<7%) | 45 laundry cycles, slight changes (<8.05%) in capacitance | [253] |
Textiles | Washing Tech. | Standard | Parameters | Ref. | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Time | Temp. | Deterg. | Load | Rotation | Wash | Drying | ||||
Cotton fiber/CNT | Container wash | AATCC 61-2006 | 45 min | 40 °C | 200 mL | 10 SS ball | 40 ± 2 rpm | 8 Cyc. | Hang dry | [147] |
Cotton yarn/CB | Beaker Wash | - | 10 min | 25 °C | 1 wt% | - | Magnetic Stirr | 16 Cyc. | Air Dry | [153] |
Cellulose yarn/PEDOT:PSS-EG | Domestic Laundry M/C | Wool Program | - | 30 °C | Yes | - | 800 rpm | 10 Cyc. | - | [154] |
Nylon/MWCNT;AgNW | Beaker Wash | - | 10 min | 60 °C | - | - | 300 rpm Stirr | 5 Cyc. | - | [159] |
SS-PET yarn | M/C Wash | - | 20 min | 30 °C | - | - | - | 8 Cyc. | Hanging | [160] |
PAN fiber/rGO;CNT | Hand Wash | - | 5 min | 25 °C | 4 g/L | - | - | 5 Cyc. | Air Dry | [161] |
PDVF/CNT yarn | Beaker wash | ISO 6330 A7 | 10 min | 30 °C | No | - | 400 rpm | 10 Cyc | Air dry | [163] |
PET yarn/Cu | M/C Wash | AATCC 135, Hand laundry program | 40 min | 20 °C | Yes | 1.8 kg | 119 strokes/min, 430 rpm | 20 Cyc. | Air hang dry | [167] |
SS-Terylene yarn | Commercial M/C wash | AATCC 135 | 5 min | 25 °C | Yes | 1.8 kg | 119 strokes/min, 430 rpm | 40 Cyc. | Air hang dry | [168] |
PET fabric/Silver ink | Canister wash | AATCC 61 | 45 min | 49 °C | 0.24 gm | 50 SS ball | - | 15 Cyc. | 50 °C, 15 min | [187] |
PET Fabric/RGO, CU2O | Domestic wash | GB/T 12490 | 30 min | 40 °C | NO | 10 SS ball | - | 40 Cyc. | Room temp. | [209] |
PI fabric/TPU-MWCNT | Beaker wash | ISO 105-C03 | 60 min | 60 °C | 0.37 wt% | - | Ultrasonication | 20 Cyc | 60 °C, oven | [219] |
Cotton Fabric/PANI | Dry wash | AATCC 86-2005 | 30 min | 30 °C | 200 mL TTE | Intense Stirring | 40 Cyc. | Air Dry | [230] | |
Nylon Fabric/Cu | M/C wash | GB/T 5454–1997 | 30 min | 40 °C | 5 g/L | - | - | 50 Cyc | - | [231] |
Silk yarn/PEDOT:PSS | M/C Wash | Hand wash prog. | 50 min | 30 °C | 20 mL | - | 900 rpm | 4 Cyc. | Line Dry | [254] |
PET braided yarn/CNT | Beaker wash | - | 30 min | - | - | - | Ultrasonication | 5 Cyc. | Vacuum dry | [166] |
PI fabric/PEDOT:PSS | Household M/C | ISO 6330 | 35 min | 40 °C | 30 mL | 2.5 kg | 600 rpm | 50 Cyc. | - | [255] |
Solar cell/Textiles | Hand wash | AATCC M5 | - | - | Yes | - | - | 25 Cyc. | Line dry | [256] |
Cu and Ni fabric/PDMS | Hand scrubbing | AATCC-138 2005 | - | 50 °C | 0.3 mL | - | - | 7 Cyc. | Oven dry | [257] |
Org. | Test Method | Details | Status | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
ISO | FDIS 24584 | Test method for sheet resistance of conductive textiles using non-contact type | Under development | [274] |
AATCC | TM210 | Test method for electrical resistance before and after various exposure conditions (laundering, dry cleaning, water, perspiration, acids and alkalis, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and/or microbes) | Published in 2019 | [275] |
EP13 | Evaluation procedure for electrical resistance of electronically integrated textiles | Published in 2018 (Revised 2021) | [276] | |
ASTM | WK61480 | Method for durability of smart garment textile electrodes after laundering | Under Development | [277] |
D8248-20 | Standard terminology for smart textiles | Published in 2020 | [278] | |
IEC | 63203-101-1 | Terminology used in wearable electronic devices and technologies | Published in 2021 | [279] |
63203-201-3 | Determination of electrical resistance of conductive textiles under simulated microclimate (air layer containing humidity and temperature between skin and clothing) | Published in 2021 | [280] | |
63203-204-1 | Test method for assessing washing durability of leisurewear and sportswear e-textile systems | Under development, expected release in mid-2023 | [281] | |
TR 63203-250-1 | Snap fastener connectors between e-textiles and detachable electronic devices | Published in 2021 | [282] | |
63203-406-1 | Test method for measuring surface temperature of wrist-worn wearable electronic devices while in contact with human skin | Published in 2021 | [283] | |
IPC | 8921 | Requirements for woven and knitted electronic textiles (e-textiles) integrated with conductive fibers, conductive yarns, and/or wires | Published in 2019 | [284] |
8921A | Requirements for woven, knitted, and braided electronic textiles (e-textiles) integrated with conductive yarns and/or wires | Not published yet | ||
JPCA-8911 | Requirements for conductive yarns for e-textiles applications | Under development | ||
8952 | Design standard for printed electronics on coated or treated textiles and e-textiles | Under development, Expected release by the end of 2022 | ||
8971 | Requirements for electrical testing of printed electronics e-textiles | Under development, Expected release in mid-2022 | ||
8981 | Quality and reliability for e-textiles wearables | Under development, Expected release in early 2023 | ||
WP-024 | IPC White Paper on Reliability and Washability of Smart Textile Structures—Readiness for the Market | Published in 2018 | [285] | |
WP-025 | IPC White Paper on A Framework for the Engineering and Design of E-Textiles | Published in 2019 | [286] |
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Shak Sadi, M.; Kumpikaitė, E. Advances in the Robustness of Wearable Electronic Textiles: Strategies, Stability, Washability and Perspective. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 2039. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12122039
Shak Sadi M, Kumpikaitė E. Advances in the Robustness of Wearable Electronic Textiles: Strategies, Stability, Washability and Perspective. Nanomaterials. 2022; 12(12):2039. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12122039
Chicago/Turabian StyleShak Sadi, Mohammad, and Eglė Kumpikaitė. 2022. "Advances in the Robustness of Wearable Electronic Textiles: Strategies, Stability, Washability and Perspective" Nanomaterials 12, no. 12: 2039. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12122039