Religious–Moral Values in Inclusive Education: A Mixed-Methods Study of Romanian Special Education Teachers

Abstract

This study examines the role of religious–moral values in supporting the inclusion of students with special educational needs (SEN) within the broader framework of inclusive education. Using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, the research combines a qualitative phase based on semi-structured interviews with special education teachers (N = 9 participants) and a quantitative phase involving a questionnaire administered to a larger sample (N = 324 respondents). The qualitative findings indicate that teachers associate religious–moral values with the development of socio-emotional competencies, such as empathy, respect, solidarity, and a sense of belonging, which are considered essential for inclusion. The quantitative results support these perspectives, showing high levels of agreement regarding the contribution of these values to fostering positive attitudes, social acceptance, and the classroom integration of students with SEN. The findings also suggest that teachers attribute greater importance to core values than to formal religious instruction and prefer adaptive, student-centered strategies, including narrative and experiential approaches. Overall, the study highlights the potential of religious–moral values as a resource for inclusive education when applied in a flexible, interdisciplinary, and context-sensitive manner. These findings contribute to ongoing discussions on the role of religion in education, particularly in relation to inclusion, equality, and respect for diversity.

1. Introduction

1.1. Research Context, Aim, and Research Questions

Inclusive education has become a key priority in contemporary educational systems, emphasizing the importance of equal opportunities and the need to respond to the diverse needs of all students, including those with SEN. At the same time, increasing attention has been directed toward the role of values in education, particularly in shaping inclusive attitudes and practices. Within this broader framework, religious–moral values can play a significant role in influencing teachers’ perceptions, professional decisions, and interactions with students. Values such as respect for human dignity, empathy, and solidarity are closely aligned with the principles of inclusive education and can support the development of educational practices oriented toward the acceptance of diversity. However, the ways in which these values are integrated into inclusive educational practices remain insufficiently explored, especially in specific socio-cultural contexts.

The aim of this study is to examine how religious and moral values are integrated by special education teachers working with students with SEN within the socio-cultural and educational context of Romania.

To achieve this objective, the study addresses the following research questions:

RQ1: What opportunities and challenges do these teachers identify regarding the integration of religious–moral values in inclusive education, based on qualitative and quantitative data?

RQ2: How do special education teachers integrate religious–moral values in the context of educating students with SEN?

RQ3: How are these values reflected in the attitudes and professional practices of special education teachers in inclusive educational settings?

1.2. Theoretical Background

Inclusive education represents one of the major development priorities of contemporary educational systems. It is founded on principles such as equity, participation, and the valorization of diversity across different contexts, including the school environment. International reference documents (UNESCO 2024, p. 5), as well as specific legislation at the national level, protect people with disabilities from any form of discrimination. They also support them by promoting equal access to education (ADA 2008). However, research data show that the presence of students with SEN in the school environment does not automatically result in effective inclusion. This process requires active involvement, social acceptance within the group, and both cognitive and emotional support provided by teachers and peers (Koster et al. 2009; Dalgaard et al. 2022). As highlighted in the literature, inclusive education should not be reduced to the physical placement of students in mainstream settings but must ensure meaningful participation and learning outcomes (Lindsay 2007).

Within this broader perspective, research highlights that the success of inclusion depends essentially on aspects such as specialized training, on the attitudes of teachers (Avramidis and Norwich 2002; Florian and Linklater 2010), as well as on their willingness to adapt the teaching process to the diversity of students (Gal et al. 2025), and to the socio-cultural environment (Galih and Hermanto 2024; Woolfson 2025). Recent research syntheses emphasize that effective inclusion requires not only individual teacher competencies but also collaborative practices, access to support services, and adequate institutional resources (Chow et al. 2024). Moreover, the initial and continuous training of teachers remains an essential factor in the successful inclusion of students with SEN (EASNIE 2019, p. 12; Myronova et al. 2021), in a context in which recent research data show significant differences between the perceptions of teachers depending on factors such as their professional experience within the department, the school context (Lemoine et al. 2024) and the use of available resources (Adams et al. 2023). Analyses further indicate that teacher training for inclusion is uneven, depending on prior training and the situations teachers are required to address, and is often dependent on institutional support and limited local resources (Ahmed et al. 2022; Bellini et al. 2013). Parents’ perceptions are a factor influencing both children’s participation and the family’s collaboration with the school, with research data highlighting the need for approaches that emphasize collaboration and adaptation to the socio-cultural context, given that the socio-emotional dimension of education becomes increasingly important in this context (Boer et al. 2010). These findings are highly relevant to the present study, as they underscore the importance of approaches grounded in values and sensitive to context in promoting inclusive practices, as well as the ways in which religious–moral values can influence teachers’ attitudes and instructional decisions.

Current learning models focused on the socio-emotional component emphasize the importance of developing skills such as self-regulation, empathy, and individual and social responsibility (CASEL 2020), as well as positive relationships (Cipriano and McCarthy 2023). Research findings indicate that a supportive school climate for socio-emotional development is significantly associated with lower levels of teachers’ stress, greater teaching effectiveness (Selisko et al. 2024), and increased openness to inclusion (Collie et al. 2012). In the case of students with SEN, educational interventions tailored to their individual needs can improve not only social skills and active participation in group learning activities but also behavior in and outside the classroom (Durlak et al. 2011; Hassani and Schwab 2021). In this context, research has also examined the impact that professional stress or excessive workload has on teachers, showing their influence on the quality of pedagogical relationships in the classroom, which highlights the essential role of socio-emotional competencies for the success of the teaching activity (Herman et al. 2018; Dignath et al. 2022). Taken together, these insights highlight the central importance of affective and relational dimensions in inclusive education, providing a valuable framework for understanding how religious–moral values can influence teachers’ practices and their interactions with students with SEN.

Inclusive education is closely linked to broader frameworks of equality, human dignity, and respect for diversity, particularly in relation to the rights of students with SEN (UNESCO 2020, p. 7). In this context, educational approaches that promote empathy, solidarity, and social acceptance play a key role in supporting inclusive learning environments (Durlak et al. 2011). Religious–moral values, understood as part of the broader axiological framework of education, can contribute to these aims by fostering attitudes and behaviors that support inclusion (Timmins et al. 2023).

In addition, religion can be understood not only as a school subject, but also as a broader cultural and social resource that contributes to the formation of values, attitudes, and interpersonal relationships. In this sense, religious–moral values can play a significant role in shaping inclusive educational environments, particularly by promoting respect for diversity, social cohesion, and ethical responsibility (Putnam and Campbell 2010; Ainscow and Chapman 2025).

An important research direction concerns the role of religious and spiritual values in the lives of people with disabilities, particularly given the link between these dimensions and the quality of life (Ault 2010), beginning in childhood (Sango and Forrester-Jones 2022). Although religion is not a subject in all educational systems, values such as compassion, solidarity, respect for human dignity, and responsibility toward others are grounded in religious or spiritual foundations. These values are transversely integrated into moral, civic, artistic, or ecological education. Research findings indicate that students with SEN can be supported through coherent religious elements, but the teaching methodology must be adapted to their cognitive level (Zulkifli et al. 2022). In this respect, the findings indicate that religious–moral values can serve as a formative framework for special education teachers, contributing to the socio-emotional development of students with SEN and supporting their integration in both school and community contexts. Religious–moral values can also function as factors that enhance self-esteem and reduce stress and isolation, contributing to the development of coping mechanisms and emotional regulation (Biesinger and Arikawa 2008). At the same time, they can support the promotion of respect for human dignity, diversity and equal opportunities, provided they are addressed in a reflective, inclusive, and non-dogmatic manner (Gaus 2021).

Participation in religious activities can significantly contribute to increasing the sense of belonging and strengthening social relations, both within and beyond the school context (Carter and Boehm 2019).

The formative potential of religious values can be effectively harnessed when the presence of children with SEN in religious communities is accompanied by active inclusion in specific activities (Slocum 2016), which implies their acceptance and access to religious life (Sango and Forrester-Jones 2019). Studies show that religious educators play an important role in community support of the access of people with special needs to spiritual life (Ault et al. 2021; Carter et al. 2023). Parents of children with SEN support the use of religious resources to foster emotional adjustment and facilitate inclusion (Tarakeshwar and Pargament 2001), as well as to address specific challenges in various contexts (Weiss 2020).

Research on the inclusion of students with SEN highlights the need for collaboration among teachers to avoid indoctrination and promote inclusion through interdisciplinary approaches (Marquez and Florendo 2023). Education systems are increasingly interested in the comparative analysis of collaboration models among teachers of different specializations for the effective integration of religious values from an inclusive perspective (Nelson et al. 2025). The data also show how the success of inclusive educational approaches is mediated by respect for the integrity of specific religious environments, by establishing a dialogue based on openness and respect (Ipgrave 2004). International studies indicate that special education teachers indirectly utilize religious values as supporting elements in moral or multicultural education (Blanks and Smith 2009). Although research has addressed religious–moral values, religious education (RE), and inclusion, the literature remains fragmented, particularly in Eastern European contexts, underscoring the need for empirical studies that examine how these dimensions intersect in teachers’ professional practice.

1.3. The Romanian Context

Romania provides a relatively homogeneous religious context compared to many Western societies, with the majority of the population identifying as Orthodox Christian. According to recent national statistics, over 80% of the population belongs to the Romanian Orthodox Church, while other religious denominations (such as Roman Catholic, Reformed, Pentecostal, Muslim, and others) represent smaller communities. This religious landscape influences both the cultural framework and the educational system, where religion continues to play a visible role in shaping values and social norms (SSC 2018, p. 24). This relatively homogeneous structure contrasts with more religiously pluralistic societies, where value systems are often more diverse and less institutionally anchored.

In the pre-university educational context, RE is included in the national curriculum as part of the common core throughout all levels of schooling. For minor students, participation is decided by parents, and overall participation rates are high, although it is not strictly compulsory (Opriș 2020). As a result, teachers—especially those working in inclusive education settings—often operate within a value system that is implicitly influenced by dominant religious and moral traditions at both the national level and within multicultural regional communities (Porumbăcean et al. 2023). Understanding this context is essential for interpreting how teachers perceive and integrate religious–moral values into their professional practice, particularly in inclusive educational settings involving students with SEN.

The legislative framework supports inclusive education both in mainstream schools and in specialized institutions, depending on the level of support required by students with SEN. Within mainstream education, students benefit from additional support services provided by specialized staff (e.g., school counselors or special education teachers), either within regular classrooms or in dedicated support centers (Horga and Jigău 2010). Teachers involved in RE benefit from initial academic training that combines theological education, largely organized along denominational lines, with general pedagogical preparation. In addition, teachers working with students with SEN undertake continuous training in special education and regularly participate in professional development programs.

The Ministry of Education and Research (MEC) has included, in recently approved curricular documents, specific clarifications and recommendations aimed at enhancing the adaptation of the teaching process to the needs of students with SEN (MEC 2025a, p. 10). RE curricula provide clear guidelines for adapting teaching strategies to students’ diverse needs (MEC 2025c, p. 20), promoting the use of student-centered approaches that foster active participation, personal reflection, and the individualization of learning tasks (MEC 2025b, p. 26). The religious and moral values conveyed in RE classes may vary in emphasis depending on the dominant denomination of the participating students. Nevertheless, all religions or denominations with officially approved curricula consistently support the inclusion of students with SEN through both shared and specific religious–moral values. Moreover, in accordance with parents’ religious preferences, who generally express strong support for such inclusive initiatives, the national curriculum encourages the implementation of both curricular and extracurricular activities through which these values contribute to the achievement of interdisciplinary educational objectives (MEC 2025a, p. 15).

The legislative framework is aligned with international recommendations and practices, and is coherent and favorable to leveraging the multicultural context in the inclusion of students with SEN. This is highlighted by numerous national studies analyzing, from different perspectives, the possibilities of supporting specific educational activities (Szász et al. 2024; Creţu 2023; Crișan et al. 2020). This approach is also reflected in recent works that provide practical models for differentiated instruction, individualized learning tasks, and the adaptation of teaching strategies to students’ cognitive and socio-emotional profiles (Porumbăcean et al. 2023).

Despite these favorable conditions, empirical research specifically addressing teachers’ perceptions of the role of religious and moral values in inclusive education for students with SEN remains limited (Corici 2025). Therefore, we consider that a mixed-methods study, which highlights the specific features, opportunities, and challenges related to the use of these values in the current teaching practice, may provide new and valuable insights for public education. Such an approach can support the development of new perspectives on multicultural education, in line with contemporary societal expectations regarding the role of religious–moral values in formal educational contexts.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Finality of Research

The research questions guiding this study are as follows:

(1)

What is the place of RE in the hierarchy of educational disciplines with the potential to support the inclusion of students with SEN from the perspective of special education teachers?

(2)

Are there statistically significant differences in the way special education teachers perceive the role of teaching approaches in RE and the contribution of religious–moral values to the inclusion of students with SEN?

(3)

Are there statistically significant differences between situations in which religious–moral values are used in intervention plans?

(4)

Is there a statistically significant association between the methods of RE that can be used to support the inclusion of students with SEN and the gender of the respondents, as well as their work environment?

(5)

Are there statistically significant differences across educational levels in the use of religious educational resources to support the inclusion of students with SEN?

2.2. Research Design

This study employs a mixed-methods design, combining an exploratory qualitative stage with a descriptive-analytical quantitative phase (Creswell and Plano Clark 2018). The qualitative phase informed the development of the questionnaire, while the quantitative stage enabled an in-depth statistical analysis of the research variables, in line with the study objectives. This approach allows for both the exploration of special education teachers’ perceptions of the role of religious–moral values in the inclusion of students with SEN and the validation of these findings using a larger sample.

2.3. Preliminary Research

The preliminary phase of the study involved semi-structured interviews conducted with nine special education teachers in Romania between May and June 2025. Participants were selected based on their availability and experience working with students with SEN. Their teaching experience ranged from 5 to 30 years, covering primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary education levels.

In the qualitative phase of the study, participants were informed about the purpose of the research and the voluntary nature of their participation prior to the interviews. Informed consent was obtained before audio recording, and participants were assured of their right to withdraw at any time without any consequences. Confidentiality and anonymity were ensured throughout the research process, with all interview data anonymized during transcription and analysis. The data were used exclusively for academic purposes, in accordance with established ethical standards and the ethical approval described in the Institutional Review Board Statement.

The research aimed to identify respondents’ perceptions of the role of religious–moral values in the development of students with SEN, to highlight the key elements considered relevant, to collect opinions on the possibilities of integrating these values into teaching activities, as well as on the potential for collaboration and support within the school in the pedagogical use of these resources. The interviews were analyzed thematically, and inductive coding was applied to identify recurring themes.

The results indicate that the opinions of special education teachers consistently support the potential of religious–moral values to contribute to the moral and socio-emotional development of children with SEN. These values are primarily regarded as a source of fundamental principles supporting the school inclusion of students with SEN, as respondents highlight their contribution to fostering mutual respect, empathy, and solidarity in diverse educational contexts.

The potential of religious–moral values is considered significant in the development of students’ responsibility toward peers and others. At the same time, respondents highlight the constant presence of religious–moral values in the learning content studied by students, as well as their accessibility for those with SEN.

For some respondents, the role of religious–moral values is reflected in the development of “mutual respect, love as the supreme value, courage, and justice” (Respondent 4). At the same time, others emphasize that these values help children “feel part of the community” and “feel valuable” (Respondent 9) or understand “the notions of good and evil” (Respondent 7). The potential of RE in developing “respect for oneself and others, mutual help, hope, and forgiveness” (Respondent 2) was also noted.

The integration of these values in educational activities can be achieved, according to the respondents, especially through narrative and playful teaching strategies, adapted to the cognitive levels of children with SEN. Teaching methods are listed in different structures or hierarchies: religious storytelling with a moralizing character, parables, riddles, religious songs, thematic role-playing, artistic activities, and group projects with a Christian theme. For extracurricular contexts, respondents mentioned opportunities for participation in community activities, including participation in religious services, where appropriate to the specific needs of students with SEN. The opinion of special education teachers is that these methods facilitate the understanding of religious–moral values, providing children with concrete models and accessible contexts for practicing prosocial behaviors.

The responses indicate that special education teachers value religious–moral education less as specialized content and more as a support for moral and relational training, integrating specific values into “educational activities and capitalizing on them in collaboration with the family” (Respondent 6).

Special education teachers rely on collaboration with classroom teachers and school counselors, as well as on the involvement of parents, whom they consider “the main partners” in the education of children with SEN (Respondent 1). Collaboration with the teacher of RE is also perceived in certain contexts as a valuable support. For a teacher, it provides “undeniable help” in promoting moral values (Respondent 3), but this collaboration is not consistent and depends on factors such as the institutional culture or the management model of each school.

2.4. Collection of Research Data

Quantitative data were collected through a questionnaire administered to special education teachers, consisting of two parts: socio-demographic items in the first part, and opinion items addressing various aspects related to the inclusion of children with SEN. Socio-demographic items were used as research variables. Among them, the item concerning the respondents’ gender was open-ended, allowing participants to specify their gender. The data presented in this article are part of ongoing doctoral research.

This article analyzes a subset of 5 items from a larger questionnaire (17 items), selected on the basis of direct relevance to the objectives of the study. The items address respondents’ views on the role of RE among the disciplines that support the school inclusion of children with SEN, ways of utilizing resources offered by RE in the school inclusion of children with SEN, situations in which religious–moral values are used in the intervention plans of the respondents, specific methods of RE used by special education teachers, respectively, and the use of educational means with religious content in their intervention plans.

The first item was based on the fact that each school subject encompasses values pertaining to the moral or religious dimension of education and required respondents to select up to four educational subjects that support the inclusion of students with SEN. The next item asked the respondents to give a score from 1 to 5 for six statements that address the ways of using religious–moral values in the inclusion of students with SEN. The third item asked respondents to select up to three situations in which they use religious–moral values in their intervention plans. The last two items focused on teaching aspects. Thus, the respondents were asked to choose from a list of methods specific to RE those they consider suitable for use in individual intervention plans and to indicate, on a five-point Likert scale, the frequency with which they use certain teaching resources specific to RE.

The questionnaire was administered to special education teachers in Romania. Participation was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time. Anonymity and confidentiality were ensured. No sensitive personal data were collected, and no incentives were provided for participation.

The questionnaire was developed with the support of specialists in education sciences, teachers with advanced research competencies in this field and in this specific research topic, and the validity of the questionnaire was ensured through its analysis by the guidance team within the Doctoral School, after which it was revised according to the suggestions. The reliability of the questionnaire for the items under analysis was verified by means of SPSS, (version 22.0; Armonk, NY, USA: IBM Corp) which generated the value of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.833, demonstrating a good internal consistency, being above the commonly accepted value. Also, for the items subjected to the analysis, the adequacy of the data for factor analysis was assessed. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin test had the value KMO = 0.863, which shows a very good level of sample adequacy. The Bartlett’s test is statistically significant, χ² (276) = 3862.345, p < 0.001, suggesting that the correlation matrix is suitable for analysis.

2.5. Research Participants

The questionnaire was distributed online via Google Forms between July and November 2025, both through the professional social networks of special education teachers and by email, with the support of regional school inspectorates. By the end of the data collection period, a total of 324 responses were recorded. Of the total sample, 90.2% of respondents identified as female and 9.8% as male. Of the total respondents, 81.5% worked in schools in urban areas and 18.5% in rural areas. Regarding the educational level at which they worked with the majority of their students, the distribution is as follows: 43.8% in primary education, 42.6% in secondary education, and 13.6% in high school education. The distribution according to work experience in education is as follows: 23.7% between 0 and 10 years, 27.2% between 11 and 20 years, 30.6% between 21 and 30 years, and 18.5% between 31 and 40 years. According to teaching certification levels, the distribution was as follows: 11.4% novice teachers, 13.9% holding permanent teaching certification, 15.4% holding the second teaching degree, and 59.3% holding the first teaching degree.

2.6. Analysis of Research Data

In the analysis of the quantitative data, basic statistical indicators were used (frequency, mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation), along with the nonparametric Wilcoxon test for two paired variables, the Cochran’s Q test for more than two-paired dichotomous variables, the chi-square test (χ²), the Phi coefficient (effect size), and the nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis test for more than two independent samples. Nonparametric tests were applied because in all the analyses performed, the value of the Shapiro–Wilk normality test was p < 0.05. The data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical package (version 22.0; Armonk, NY, USA: IBM Corp).

3. Results

3.1. RE as a Subject Supporting the Inclusion of Students with SEN

To address the first research question: (1) What is the place of RE in the hierarchy of educational disciplines with the potential to support the inclusion of students with SEN from the perspective of special education teachers?, responses to a semi-open item (Q1) were analyzed at the frequency level. Respondents were asked to select from the predefined list up to four educational disciplines that contribute significantly to the inclusion of students with SEN. Being a semi-open item, respondents had the opportunity to propose another subject not included in the list provided by us. In

Table 1. Hierarchy of school subjects supporting the inclusion of students with SEN.

Subjects	Frequency
	Number	Percentage
Romanian language	174	17.76
RE	154	15.71
Plastic education	133	13.57
Socio-human disciplines	123	12.55
Mathematics	108	11.02
Physical education	95	9.69
Music education	80	8.16
Natural Sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Biology)	37	3.78
Modern languages	33	3.37
History	21	2.14
Other. Which?	14	1.43
None	5	0.51
All	3	0.31
Total	980	100

Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple SPSS (version 22.0) outputs.

, the subjects were ranked based on the frequency of selection.

3.2. Practices for Leveraging Religious–Moral Values in Inclusive Education

To answer the second research question: (2) Are there statistically significant differences in the way special education teachers perceive the role of teaching approaches in RE and the contribution of religious–moral values to the inclusion of students with SEN?, data from the closed-ended item Q2 were analyzed.

This item required participants to give a score from 1 to 5 for each of the six statements presented, (where 1 is the lowest value and 5 is the highest value). The statements were numbered and coded as follows: 1. The subject of RE provides opportunities to support the inclusion of students with SEN at the classroom level. (Classroom inclusion through RE); 2. The didactic approach within the RE class supports the inclusion of students with SEN. (Teaching support RE); 3. Elements of religion can be harnessed in special education by other teachers. (Interdisciplinary valorization of religion by other teachers); 4. Religious–moral values contribute significantly to the inclusion of students with SEN. (Religious–moral values); 5. Religious–moral values support the development of a positive attitude toward oneself and toward others in students with SEN. (Positive attitudes in students); 6. The religious–moral approach can facilitate the support and acceptance of students with SEN in the collective (Acceptance in the collective through RE).

Three of the statements (1, 2, and 6) address the way in which RE supports the inclusion of students with SEN, and statements 3, 4, and 5 emphasize the role of values, attitudes, and content of religious–moral values in the development and inclusion of students with SEN, as well as the possibility of their application by teachers from different subject areas in related educational activities. The data were analyzed using basic statistical indicators and the Wilcoxon nonparametric test for two paired variables. The frequency distribution of responses is shown in

Table 2. Frequency distribution (%) of scores assigned to statements regarding the use of religious–moral elements in supporting the inclusion of students with SEN.

Score	Statements
	1. Classroom Inclusion Through RE	2. Teaching Support RE	3. Interdisciplinary Valorization of Religion by Other Teachers	4. Religious–Moral Values	5. Positive Attitudes in Students	6. Acceptance in the Collective Through RE
1	5.6	4.3	3.1	3.4	2.5	2.8
2	9.9	9.6	7.7	6.5	6.5	6.5
3	25.3	21.3	21.6	19.8	17.9	16.7
4	28.1	27.2	31.8	33.3	31.5	28.7
5	31.2	37.7	35.8	37.0	41.7	45.4
Total	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0

Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple SPSS (version 22.0) outputs. Note: Percentages may not total exactly 100% due to rounding.

.

The analysis of the data indicates that for all statements there is an increase in percentage values from score 1 to score 5, which shows the positive evaluation of religious approaches in the inclusion of students with SEN. In the case of score 4, we observe close values for the six statements (between 27.2% at statement 2 and 33.3% at statement 4); whereas for score 5, differences of about 15 percentage points are observed. For higher scores, most choices are found in statement 5 (which considers the potential of religious–moral values in developing a positive attitude towards oneself and others) and statement 6 (which considers facilitating, through RE, the acceptance and support of students with SEN). These data were supplemented by the analysis of central tendency and dispersion indicators: mean, median, mode, and standard deviation, with the results of the analysis presented in

Table 3. Central tendency and dispersion indicators for the role of religious–moral values in supporting the inclusion of students with SEN.

Indicators	Statements
	1. Classroom Inclusion Through RE	2. Teaching Support RE	3. Interdisciplinary Valorization of Religion by Other Teachers	4. Religious–Moral Values	5. Positive Attitudes in Students	6. Acceptance in the Collective Through RE
Mean	3.69	3.84	3.90	3.94	4.03	4.07
Median	4.00	4.00	4.00	4.00	4.00	4.00
Mode	5	5	5	5	5	5
Standard deviation	1.171	1.158	1.074	1.064	1.039	1.062

Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple SPSS (version 22.0) outputs.

.

The analysis of the data in Table 3 shows that for all statements the mean score obtained has a value higher than 3.5, indicating a strong positive evaluation of religious–moral values in supporting the inclusion of students with SEN. There were also two mean scores above 4 in the case of the last two statements: mean₅ = 4.03, for the contribution of religious–moral values to the development of a positive attitude towards oneself and towards others in the case of students with SEN, respectively, mean₆ = 4.07, for the support that moral–religious approaches provide in fostering and accepting students with SEN. The differences recorded between the mean scores show that statements 5 and 6 were evaluated more favorably by the respondents. These statements target socio-emotional dimensions that teachers consider essential in the inclusion of students with SEN.

The medians and modes are constant at the values 4 (median) and 5 (mode), which confirms a positive distribution of perceptions with a concentration of responses at the higher values of the scale. The dispersion of the scores around the mean is moderate to high, which shows that the respondents do not have a uniform perception of the analyzed aspects (in all cases, the coefficient of variation exceeds 25%).

Using the Wilcoxon test, the scores for the two categories of statements were compared, with the value being Z = −3.391, p = 0.001, which shows the existence of statistically significant differences between the way in which special education teachers perceive the role of didactic approaches specific to the RE class in the inclusion of students with SEN (contribution 1) compared to the way in which they appreciate the contribution of religious–moral values and the possibility that they are integrated by other teachers in special education (contribution 2). To see the meaning behind the difference, we analyzed the sum of the ranks, which in this case corresponds to the positive ranks (

Table 4. Sum of ranks for the two possible contributions of RE to the inclusion of students with SEN.

		N	Mean Rank	Sum of Ranks
Contribution 2 score—Contribution 1 score	Negative Ranks	63 a	77.54	4885.00
	Positive Ranks	103 b	87.15	8976.00
	Ties	158 c
	Total	324

Source: SPSS (version 22.0) output generated from authors’ own data. ^a. Contribution 2 score < Contribution 1 score; ^b. Contribution 2 score > Contribution 1 score; ^c. Contribution 2 score = Contribution 1 score.

).

The data indicate that special education teachers assign significantly greater value to the potential of religious–moral values in supporting the inclusion of students with SEN (contribution 2), compared to the didactic approaches carried out through RE classes for this purpose (contribution 1).

The qualitative findings, which emphasize the role of empathy, respect, and a sense of belonging, are supported by quantitative results, particularly the high mean scores for items related to positive attitudes and social acceptance. This convergence reinforces the interpretation that religious–moral values are perceived as key drivers of inclusion.

3.3. The Integration of Religious–Moral Values into Intervention Plans

To address the third research question: (3) Are there statistically significant differences between situations in which religious–moral values are used in intervention plans?, the answers to the closed-ended item Q3 were analyzed, through which the respondents were asked to choose up to three of the five options: 1. On the occasion of Christian holidays; 2. When organizing joint activities with the teacher of RE; 3. When I observe the student’s inclination in the religious field; 4. When parents ask me to do so; 5. When the educational and family situation allows. The data were analyzed using basic statistical indicators and the Cochran Q nonparametric test for more than two paired dichotomous variables.

Based on the data provided by the Cochran Q test analysis, the situations in which religious–moral values are integrated into the intervention plans for students with SEN were ranked based on the frequencies obtained, as presented in

Table 5. Hierarchy of frequencies regarding the situations in which religious–moral values are integrated into intervention plans for students with SEN.

Variables	Value
	0 (No)	1 (Yes)
On the occasion of Christian holidays.	60 18.5%	264 81.5%
When we organize joint activities with the teacher of RE.	147 45.4%	177 54.6%
When the educational and family situation allows.	174 59.9%	150 40.1%
When I notice the student’s inclination in the religious field.	194 91.7%	130 8.3%
When parents ask me this.	297 53.7%	27 46.3%

Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple SPSS (version 22.0) outputs.

.

The data from Table 5 indicate that special education teachers use such content most frequently on the occasion of Christian holidays (81.5%), and most rarely when they observe a student’s interest in the religious domain (8.3%). The organization of joint activities between special education teachers and the teacher of RE is reported by more than 50% of respondents. Situations in which parents request such approaches show similarly high values (46.3%). These results reveal that the use of religious–moral values is culturally and calendar-based and is adapted to the direct requirements of the family or the student. The high level of consistency between these results and qualitative findings indicates that the insights expressed in interviews are widely shared among the broader sample of teachers.

The Cochran Q Test, Q (4) = 327.583, p < 0.001, indicates the existence of statistically significant differences between situations of integration of religious–moral values into intervention plans for students with SEN.

3.4. Instructional Methods in RE for Students with SEN

To address the fourth research question: (4) Is there a statistically significant association between the methods of RE that can be used to support the inclusion of students with SEN and the gender of the respondents, as well as their work environment?, we used a semi-open question (Q4). Respondents were asked to select from the list of instructional methods specific to RE that we provided, those they considered suitable for use in individual interventions with students with SEN. The list of methods included: Bible reading, dramatization of moral-religious stories, moral–religious conversation, religious storytelling, prayer, religious singing, moral example, and other methods. The data were interpreted by means of frequencies and association coefficient χ² between two nominal variables. The frequency analysis (

Table 6. RE methods that could be used in individual interventions for students with SEN, ranked by frequency.

Variable	Choises
Moral–religious conversation	291 89.8%
Moral example	282 87.0%
Religious storytelling	241 74.4%
Dramatization of moral–religious stories	213 65.7%
Prayer	193 59.6%
Bible reading	162 50.0%
Religious singing	151 46.6%

Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple SPSS (version 22.0) outputs.

) provides a ranking of methods perceived as useful in individual work with students with SEN.

The data from Table 6 show that five of the proposed methods were chosen by more than half of the respondents, with moral–religious conversation ranking first (89.8%). These choices reflect the formative potential of the subject, not only at the level of learning outcomes and content but also at the level of teaching methodology. The choice of religious singing by about 50% of respondents shows recognition of the therapeutic role of music, but not at a particularly high level. For the “Other” method option in this item, no responses were recorded, which shows that the methods proposed to the respondents were consistent with the possibilities of working in their individual and institutional plans.

An important aspect of our research was the analysis using the association coefficient χ² between the specific methods of RE and the gender of the respondents and between the specific methods of RE and the environment in which they work. The data were presented for situations in which the results were statistically significant, more specifically for the prayer–gender association and the moral example–school environment (

Table 7. Statistical indicators for the prayer–gender associations, and moral example–school environment association.

	Prayer			Moral Example
	Female	Male	Total	Urban	Rural	Total
No	112 38.4%	19 59.4%	131 40.4%	29 11.0%	13 21.7%	42 13.0%
Yes	180 61.6%	13 40.6%	193 59.6%	235 89.0%	47 78.3%	282 87.0%
Total	292 100.0%	32 100.0%	324 100.0%	264 100.0%	60 100.0%	324 100.0%
	χ2 (1) = 5.290, p = 0.021, p < 0.05 Phi = −0.128			χ2 (1) = 4.944, p = 0.026, p < 0.05 Phi = −0.124

Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple SPSS (version 22.0) outputs.

). In all other situations, associations were not statistically significant.

The analysis of the data indicates statistically significant associations for prayer, in relation to respondents’ gender, and for moral example in relation to the environment in which the school is located (p < 0.05).

For the association between prayer and respondents’ gender, the percentage values show that female special education teachers value prayer more (61.6%) than their male peers (40.6%), suggesting that the two groups have a different perception of how this specific method of RE contributes to the inclusion of students with SEN. The Phi coefficient value indicates a statistically significant small association between the gender of the respondents and the appreciation of the value of prayer in the inclusion of students with SEN.

In the statistical analysis, with respect to the environment in which the school is located, the percentage values show that special education teachers from urban areas assign greater importance to moral example (89.0%) than their colleagues from rural areas (78.3%), which shows that these two categories of respondents have different perceptions of how this specific method of RE can contribute to the inclusion of students with SEN. The Phi coefficient value is close to that of the prayer–gender analysis and shows a statistically significant small association between the appreciation of moral example in the inclusion of students with SEN and the environment in which the school is located.

These findings are consistent with qualitative results, which highlighted the importance of narrative, experiential, and game-based approaches in RE for students with SEN. Quantitative data confirm this trend, indicating a preference for interactive and adaptive teaching strategies. This convergence suggests that such methods are perceived as effective in supporting inclusion.

3.5. Teaching Materials with Religious–Moral Content in Inclusive Educational Practice

To address the fifth research question: (5) Are there statistically significant differences across educational levels in the use of religious educational resources to support the inclusion of students with SEN?, we analyzed the responses to the semi-open item Q5. Participants were asked to indicate, on a scale from 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often), how frequently they use the following categories of teaching aids: worksheets with religious–moral content, biblical texts, moral–religious stories, religious illustrations of various types, religious educational films, and digital platforms of moral–religious resources. Respondents had the opportunity to specify other educational means with religious–moral content that they frequently use. The analyses were carried out using basic statistical indicators as well as the Kruskal–Wallis nonparametric test for more than two independent samples.

The frequency (%) of the use of different educational means in individual activities with students with SEN was analyzed, according to the data presented in

Table 8. Frequency distribution (%) of the use of educational means specific to RE in individual activities with students with SEN.

Grade	Teaching Aids
	Worksheets with Religious–Moral Content	Biblical Texts	Moral–Religious Stories	Religious Illustrations	Educational Films	Digital Platforms
Very rare	1.9	26.2	1.5	18.8	21.0	22.8
Rare	3.4	28.7	0.0	22.5	26.5	27.2
Moderate	13.0	26.2	18.2	24.1	25.6	16.0
Often	34.6	13.9	49.7	21.0	20.1	22.5
Very often	47.2	4.9	30.6	13.6	6.8	11.4
Total	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0

Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple SPSS (version 22.0) outputs.

.

The data in Table 8 show a high and very high frequency (above 80%) for worksheets and moral–religious stories. At the opposite end, biblical texts and digital platforms are rarely and very rarely used by more than half of the respondents. For religious illustrations and educational films, the percentage values for very rare, rare, medium, and often frequencies are close, which shows a more balanced use of them. No responses were recorded for the “Other” instructional method option in this item. The values of the statistical indicators of central tendency and dispersion were also calculated: mean, median, mode, and standard deviation, with the results of the analysis presented in

Table 9. Central tendency and dispersion indicators for the use of educational means in individual activities with students with SEN.

Indicators	Variables
	Worksheets with Religious–Moral Content	Biblical Texts	Moral–Religious Stories	Religious Illustrations	Educational Films	Digital Platforms
Mean	4.22	2.43	4.08	2.88	2.65	2.73
Median	4.00	2.00	4.00	3.00	3.00	2.50
Mode	5	2	4	3	2	2
Standard deviation	0.927	1.161	0.789	1.312	1.208	1.341
Valid answers	324	324	324	324	324	324

Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple SPSS (version 22.0) outputs.

.

The highest mean values were obtained for worksheets and moral–religious stories. For the other four educational resources, the mean values are below 3, which shows their use at low frequencies. The median values, in conjunction with those of the mode for each mean, show that more than half of teachers often and very often use worksheets and moral–religious stories. The median value for illustrations and educational films shows a decrease in the frequency of their use (the mode has the value 3 and 2, respectively), so that the values of these indicators decrease even more in the case of digital platforms and biblical texts. The values of the standard deviation indicate the degree of consistency of the respondents’ opinions, being more pronounced especially for two of the educational methods: moral–religious stories and worksheets.

The use of these educational means was analyzed according to the educational level of the students with whom the respondents work. The values of the Kruskal–Wallis nonparametric test were calculated for more than two independent samples, and the results are presented in

Table 10. Mean ranks for the analysis of the use of RE-specific educational means by special education teachers according to educational level.

Educational Means	Educational Level	Number of Respondents	Mean Rank
Worksheets with religious–moral content	Primary school	142	158.21
	Secondary school	138	166.43
	High school	44	164.00
	Total	324
Biblical texts	Primary school	142	149.48
	Secondary school	138	169.84
	High school	44	181.51
	Total	324
Moral–religious stories	Primary school	142	149.58
	Secondary school	138	166.38
	High school	44	192.05
	Total	324
Religious illustrations	Primary school	142	143.15
	Secondary school	138	177.32
	High school	44	178.48
	Total	324
Educational films	Primary school	142	139.01
	Secondary school	138	175.98
	High school	44	196.03
	Total	324
Digital moral—religious resource platforms	Primary school	142	143.61
	Secondary school	138	173.58
	High school	44	188.72
	Total	324

Source: SPSS (version 22.0) output generated from authors’ own data.

and

Table 11. The Kruskal–Wallis test results for the frequency of use of the RE-specific teaching materials by special education teachers, according to educational level.

	Work Sheets	Biblical Texts	Moral–Religious Stories	Religious Illustrations	Educational Films	Digital Platforms
Chi-Square	0.648	5.763	8.681	11.284	18.407	11.730
df	2	2	2	2	2	2
Asymp. Sig.	0.723	0.056	0.013	0.004	0.000	0.003
Kruskal–Wallis Test
Grouping Variable: Cycle

Source: SPSS (version 22.0) output generated from authors’ own data.

.

The results of the Kruskal–Wallis test show statistically significant differences for four of the six educational means, except for the worksheets with religious–moral content and biblical texts, for which the value of p is at the threshold of significance. When we analyze the mean ranks, we can note the highest values in the case of educational interventions with high school students. Only for religious illustrations, the mean value ranks in interventions with middle school students are very close to those associated with the high school level. In the case of the biblical texts, we can also observe an increase in the mean ranks from primary to high school, a pattern present for all educational means where statistically significant differences occur.

These findings are in line with the qualitative data, suggesting that methodological flexibility is not only a practical necessity but also a pedagogical principle aligned with inclusive education, particularly when supported by value-based approaches.

4. Discussion

The results of the study indicate that special education teachers attribute a significant role to religious–moral values in supporting the inclusion of students with SEN, both through their axiological dimension and their potential to facilitate positive relationships within the classroom. These results are supported by qualitative and quantitative research data, which consistently show that religious–moral values are perceived by respondents as relevant educational resources in inclusive contexts. These findings can be interpreted within broader frameworks of inclusive education, which emphasize equality, respect for diversity, and the promotion of human dignity in educational settings.

Although no school subject was perceived as having a predominant role in supporting inclusion, RE was ranked second among subjects considered relevant, immediately after the Romanian language. This positioning suggests that teachers recognize the potential of RE but perceive it as part of a broader interdisciplinary effort (Liu and Potmesil 2025). These findings are consistent with data from international literature, which highlight the role of multidisciplinary support in the inclusion of values such as compassion, empathy and solidarity (Carter and Boehm 2019; Sango and Forrester-Jones 2022).

The analysis of the six statements on the role of religious–moral values shows a strong recognition of their role in the inclusion of students with SEN, with mean values ranging between 3.69 and 4.07. The highest scores are associated with the development of positive attitudes towards oneself and others, as well as with supporting the acceptance of students within the group. These results confirm research that highlights the importance of socio-emotional interventions in reducing marginalization and increasing the active participation of students with SEN in learning activities (Durlak et al. 2011; Hassani and Schwab 2021). Furthermore, the statistically significant difference recorded between the perception of the didactic approaches specific to RE classes and the respondents’ perception of religious–moral values suggests that special education teachers consider them as an axiological framework of reference, with the set of values being regarded as more important for inclusion than the discipline through which they are conveyed. This finding is in agreement with research results that show that religious–moral values can be integrated, based on a set of transversal competencies, into teaching activities aimed at moral, civic, or socio-emotional education (Timmins et al. 2023), even in systems where religion is not part of the official curriculum (Cipriano and McCarthy 2023; CASEL 2020).

With regard to the use of religious–moral values in their own activities, special education teachers value them especially in contexts aligned with the socio-cultural rhythm of communities, especially those related to religious holidays. The collaboration with the teacher of RE, reported by more than half of the respondents, indicates the existence of interdisciplinary practices in accordance with official requirements and with the recommendations of the pedagogical literature on collaborative teaching in inclusive school and extracurricular contexts (Bellini et al. 2013; Ahmed et al. 2022). The use of religious–moral values in relation to students’ inclinations shows both increased attention and a corresponding prudence on the part of respondents, in accordance with the ethical principles of inclusive education, which require respect for the autonomy and cultural-spiritual diversity of students and their families (Sepadi 2025).

The analysis of the answers regarding the specific methods of RE shows that special education teachers in Romania employ interdisciplinary, expository, and interrogative methods, such as moral–religious conversation, moral example, religious storytelling, and dramatization. They address the specific needs of students with SEN and support learning through modeling and repetition-based structures, while helping to contextualize new learning acquisitions. Statistical analyses show significant differences in the use of specific means of RE, with higher values for educational interventions with high school students. The results confirm previous data that highlight the effectiveness of narrative and experiential didactic strategies in the development of moral and socio-emotional competencies (Biesinger and Arikawa 2008). The significant association between the use of prayer and the gender of the respondents, and between the use of moral example and the school environment, indicates the influence of cultural and personal factors on educational practices, an aspect also highlighted by qualitative preliminary research, as well as by international research on the diversity of teachers’ perceptions in inclusive contexts (Lemoine et al. 2024; Boer et al. 2010).

These findings also highlight the broader role of religion as a source of values that can contribute to social inclusion beyond the formal curriculum. In increasingly pluralistic societies, the integration of religious–moral values into education requires a balanced approach that respects diversity while promoting common ethical principles such as dignity, empathy, and solidarity. This perspective reinforces the importance of understanding religion not only as a disciplinary field, but also as a social and cultural dimension relevant to inclusive practices (Weiss 2020).

5. Conclusions

By focusing on religious–moral values in the context of the school inclusion of students with SEN, this study provides a relevant contribution to the international scientific literature, where this topic remains insufficiently explored. The responses of special education teachers in Romania indicate that religious–moral values are perceived either as autonomous principles with direct applicability to the integration of students with SEN, or as elements closely linked to RE, which provides a formal framework for their transmission and consolidation, irrespective of the confessional approach adopted in schools. The results of the qualitative and quantitative analyses indicate that religious–moral values are perceived by special education teachers as a valuable resource for inclusion, particularly through their formative role and their to support socio-emotional development. However, the findings show that their effectiveness depends on the adaptation of teaching methods, interdisciplinary collaboration, and respect for the religious diversity of students. The findings of this study, based on both qualitative evidence and statistically validated quantitative data, indicate that the use of religious–moral values in the inclusion of students with SEN constitutes a relevant, yet underexplored resource in educational practice. These results should be understood within the Romanian socio-cultural context, characterized by a relatively high level of religious affiliation and a strong presence of religious education in the school system. At the same time, the results suggest that religious–moral values can support inclusive education when they promote universal principles such as human dignity, empathy, and respect. However, it is essential that these values are articulated in ways that avoid exclusion, prejudice, or implicit forms of discrimination, particularly in pluralistic educational contexts. These findings are relevant to broader discussions on inclusive education, highlighting the importance of promoting equality, respect for diversity, and the recognition of students’ needs within contemporary educational environments.

The results support the strengthening of collaboration between RE teachers and special education teachers, as well as the importance of continuous professional development for the effective integration of the religious–moral axiological dimension reflected in curricular documents. Finally, the study highlights the need to develop teaching strategies that encourage interdisciplinary approaches and promote respect for the religious and cultural diversity of students, contributing to more inclusive and equitable educational practices.

These findings have important practical implications for multiple stakeholders. From the perspective of special education teachers, religious–moral values can support the development of inclusive attitudes, socio-emotional competencies, and collaborative practices. For religious educators, they highlight the potential of value-based approaches to foster inclusive learning environments and encourage closer collaboration with special education professionals. At the same time, for educational policymakers and religious organizations, the findings underscore the need for interdisciplinary and multicultural partnerships aimed at promoting inclusive education grounded in shared ethical and social values.

Overall, the study highlights the relevance of examining religion not only as a curricular subject, but also as a broader source of values that can support inclusive educational practices and contribute to the promotion of equality, human dignity, and respect for diversity in contemporary societies.

5.1. Limits of Research

The research presents several limitations that should be taken into account when interpreting the results. First, the sample is limited to a single national context, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings in international contexts. We also note that although data were collected from all regions of the country, the distribution of responses may not uniformly reflect the regional socio-cultural and religious diversity. The fact that the data come from teachers’ self-reports may introduce social desirability bias. At the same time, the study is based on a subset of items from a larger questionnaire, which can reduce the complexity of the analysis and the depth of interpretation. Also, the lack of extensive qualitative data limits an in-depth understanding of teachers’ experiences and the individual reasoning underlying their choices.

5.2. Future Research Directions

Based on the qualitative and quantitative research data presented, as well as the limitations identified, future research can extend this analysis by incorporating comparative data at the international level, from different education systems, to examine how religious–moral values can support inclusive approaches in diverse school contexts. Further in-depth qualitative research, involving a broader range of participants and encompassing educational stakeholders at different levels, could provide more extensive data for understanding the experiences of teachers across different specialties in using religious–moral values for inclusion, as well as prospects for developing interdisciplinary collaborations or updating institutional management frameworks. We also believe that the investigation of parents and students can bring important additions and new perspectives to the ones offered by teachers, in order to identify how the beneficiaries of education perceive the success of the implementation of the elements of the curriculum regarding the support of the integration of students with SEN. Last but not least, we emphasize the importance of organizing pilot studies, whose data could provide a more complex picture of collaboration in school and extracurricular contexts for integrating religious–moral values in interventions for students with SEN.