“Correspondence” (dang 當) and “Cultivating Perfectness” (Yang Zheng 養正): On the Concept of Perfectness (zheng 正) in the Yijing

Abstract

“Properness, correctness and uprightness” (zheng 正) refers to a common and significant concept in Chinese philosophy. In Chinese philosophical discourse, zheng embodies moral ideals. To date, scholarly attention has focused on compound concepts incorporating zheng, such as “central and zheng” (zhongzheng 中正), “the position of zheng” (zhengwei 正位), and “make the family in accordance with zheng” (zhengjia 正家), as their research objects. However, the independent philosophical meaning of zheng in the Yijing 易經 remains underexplored. Through etymological research and textual analysis, this study reveals three philosophical dimensions of the Yijing. First, it distinguishes zheng from “in correspondence to” (dang 當). It shows that dang refers to a judgment about physical alignment with time and position in theoretical situations, lacking strong moral force. Second, it argues that zheng in the Yijing originates from a metaphysical concept of a perfect ideal, broadly referring to the ideal perfect way (zheng dao 正道). The Yijing emphasizes the metaphysical level of zheng (in accordance with the perfect way), and possesses zheng as a strong moral binding force for continuing self-improvement. However, zheng does not directly function as the presupposed rationale for moral judgments and choices. Third, it examines the way of cultivating zheng (yang zheng zhi dao 養正之道) as a theory of moral cultivation (gongfu 工夫). This practical path, articulated through the hexagrams Meng 蒙 and Yi 頤, is interpreted as a form of purifying the heart/mind (xin 心) to align with the cosmic heart/mind. The study demonstrates that the moral source and moral cultivation process in the Yijing refers to a theory of “cultivating one’s heart/mind (xin 心) through practice”. It provides a perspective for understanding the moral perfectness, heart/mind and morality in the Yijing.

1. Introduction

“Properness, correctness and uprightness” (zheng 正) refers to a common and significant concept in Chinese philosophy, generally signifying moral justification, moral perfection, or the mean. In Chinese philosophical discourse, zheng signifies moral ideals, while its negation, buzheng 不正, indicates moral deficiency. This conventional interpretation is largely uncontroversial, and accordingly, the academic community has predominantly adopted this broad and widely accepted explanation, with independent research achievements dedicated specifically to the concept of zheng 正 being relatively rare. Particularly within the philosophy of the Yijing 周易 (Zhouyi, I Ching, Book of Changes)1, there is a noticeable absence of scholarly research that delves into an isolated, in-depth analysis of the concept of zheng itself. Chinese scholars directly employ the concept of zheng in the Yijing to reflect moral perfectness, moral goodness, as well as moral legitimacy and rationality. As for Western scholars of the Yijing, they usually translate zheng as proper, correct and upright. For instance, Richard Wilhelm interpreted zheng as the “right way” and “right” (Wilhelm 1967). James Legge interpreted it as “right” and “correct” (Legge 1963). Geoffrey Redmond translated zheng as “upright” (Redmond 2017). Alfred Huang translated zheng as “correct nature” and “correctness” (Huang 2010), consistent with Edward L. Shaughnessy’s rendering as “correct” (Shaughnessy 1997) and Thomas Cleary’s claim of “rightly” and “correctly” (Cleary 1986). Western scholars consistently employ such translations to render the term zheng as it appears in the Yijing. While these translations are contextually appropriate for conveying the basic sense of the term, they inevitably flatten its philosophical depth. As Joseph Adler points out in his guide to the Yijing, the binary structure of hexagrams and lines is not merely a static marker of correctness, but a dynamic model of change and adaptation (Adler 2022, pp. 39–41). By rendering zheng as simple adjectives such as proper, correct and upright, these translations fail to capture its function as a metaphysical ideal and a dynamic moral project within the Yijing’s philosophical system. More importantly, they do not elucidate the fundamental philosophical distinction between zheng and dang 當, a distinction this study aims to uncover. This study does not seek to correct these translations, but to fill a gap in the philosophical understanding of zheng as an independent concept with profound metaphysical and ethical dimensions.

Among the limited number of studies addressing zheng in the Yijing, scholarly focus has been directed towards compound concepts incorporating zheng, such as zhongzheng 中正 (central and zheng), zhengwei 正位 (the position of zheng), zhengjia 正家 (make the family in accordance with zheng). A dedicated study of zheng in isolation remains unattempted. For instance, Lu Xu interprets the way of zhengjia in the Yijing through the hexagram (gua 卦) of Jiaren 家人 (Family/Household) (Lu 2011). Wei Wenbin dialectically examines the relationship between zhongzheng and “harmony and coalescence” (hehe 和合) (Wei 1997). Zhai Kuifeng explicates the Xiangzhuan 象傳 (Commentary on the Images) of the hexagram of Xian 咸 through the phrase “the superior man (junzi 君子, virtue man), by his position of zheng, formulates his destiny and shows solidarity with destiny”(jun zi yi zheng wei ning ming 君子以正位凝命) (Zhai and Lu 2019). It is evident from these examples that academic research predominantly elucidates zheng through its combined forms, such as zhongzheng or even zhengdang 正當 (proper correspondence), interpreting it as a concept corresponding to timeliness (shi 時), phenomena/objects (wu 物), and positional (wei 位) correctness.

This paper does not dispute the broadly accepted interpretation of zheng within the academic community, nor does it argue that zheng has only one singular meaning. Rather, it raises questions about whether the concept of zheng in the Yijing is equivalent to the uprightness or correctness discussed in contemporary moral philosophy, and whether zheng in the Yijing merely signifies correctness with respect to timeliness, phenomena, and positional appropriateness. In other words, while zheng may indeed signify “correctness” or “uprightness” in many contexts, the Yijing employs this concept in ways that cannot be fully captured by these translations or by contemporary discussions of “moral justification.” The issue is not that zheng lacks plural interpretations, but its distinctive functions in the Yijing as a metaphysical ideal, as a source of moral motivation, and as a practical path of cultivation have yet to be adequately articulated. Furthermore, if zheng represents moral justification, moral perfection, or the mean in the philosophy of the Yijing, then what is the origin of zheng and morality itself? These are questions that contemporary scholarship has yet to address.

Before proceeding, it is necessary to clarify how the term “moral” is used in this study. Unless otherwise specified, “moral” in this paper refers to a broad sense of morality, consistent with the scope of normative ethics that concerns questions of whether actions, decisions, or character traits are permissible, justified, virtuous, or worthy of praise or blame. This broad usage includes, but is not limited to, judgments about right and wrong, good and bad, and the grounds for moral motivation and cultivation. In this broad sense, the Yijing is unmistakably a work of moral philosophy. This study argues the Yijing offers a moral vision centered on ceaseless self-renewal, flexible adaptation to changing circumstances, and the cultivation of an inner heart/mind (xin) that resonates with the cosmic order heaven and earth (tian-di 天地). Within this vision, zheng in the Yijing is precisely moral perfectness in the broad sense—an ideal that is meant to be referenced to our everyday choices and decisions. In this vision, moral perfection is not a static state but an endless process of “daily renewal” (ri xin 日新), and situational imperfection (bu zheng) or positional non-correspondence (bu dang) does not constitute a final moral failure.

In view of this, the present study will conduct an in-depth and independent investigation into the concept of zheng within the Yijing. By doing so, this paper aims to illuminate how an ancient Chinese classic articulates a vision of moral perfection that is both metaphysically grounded in the cosmic order (the Dao) and practically achievable through inner cultivation. Distinct from the common practice in contemporary philosophy of combining zheng 正 and “in correspondence to” (dang 當) into a single term zhengdang 正當 (proper correspondence), this research will instead provide a separate interpretation of dang 當, zheng, and zheng dao (the dao, way of zheng) as they appear in the Yijing. It is found out in this study that in the Yijing, dang 當 refers to a judgment on whether one converges with timeliness (shi 時) and position (wei 位). It is a concept at the level of physical reality, assessing alignment with theoretically appropriate circumstances. In contrast, zheng 正 refers to an ideal or perfection originating from the metaphysical level in correspondence to yinyang, “original nature and destiny” (xingming 性命). It expresses the question of whether we are in accord with the “perfect way” (zheng dao), and how we should be in accord with the “perfect way” (zheng dao). While zheng carries a strong moral imperative, it does not directly function as the presupposed rationale for moral judgments and choices. Instead, it points to how one ought to pursue ceaseless self-improvement and alignment with the cosmic order. This distinction between dang as situational correspondence and zheng as metaphysical perfectness is the philosophical foundation upon which this study builds its analysis of moral cultivation in the Yijing.

2. Dang 當: The Physical “In Correspondence to Value”

Contemporary Chinese philosophers generally employ the term zhengdang 正當 (proper correspondence) as a compound expression to describe the rationality and legitimacy of actions or motivations.

The Yijing, in the Xiangzhuan 象傳 of the fifth line of the hexagrams of Lyu 履, Pi 否, Dui 兌, and Zhongfu 中孚, respectively, all contain instances of the phrase “The position is in correspondence to ideal and appropriate” (wei zhengdang ye 位正當也)2. This does not signify that zhengdang is the dominant usage in the Yijing, nor does it imply that the Yijing generates meaning only through the compound use of zhengdang. Taking wei 位 (position) as an example as well, while the Yijing includes the judgment “The position is in correspondence to ideal and appropriate” (wei zhengdang ye 位正當也), it also simultaneously presents judgments such as “The position is in correspondence to where it should be” (wei dang ye 位當也), “The position is not in correspondence to where it should be” (wei budang ye 位不當也), “The proper and upright position” (zheng wei ye 正位也), “The position is proper, upright and central (being in mean)” (wei zhengzhong ye 位正中也). In the original text of the Yijing, lines (yao 爻) that are not in correspondence to the positions where they should be are also frequently referred to as zheng. For instance, in the fifth line of the hexagram of Kun 坤 (Earth), the Wenyan 文言 (Commentary on the Words of the Text) states “The proper and upright position dwelling in the body” (zheng wei ju ti 正位居体). The first line of the hexagram of Jin 晉 states “acting solely in the proper and upright way” (du xing zheng ye 独行正也). The first line of the hexagram of Gen 艮 states “has not lost the proper and upright way” (wei shi zheng ye 未失正也). The above examples all illustrate that the lines (yao 爻) that are not in correspondence to the positions where they should be can be referred to as zheng. From these, one can observe instances in the Yijing where zheng and dang are used separately.

Although the separate usage of zheng and dang in the Yijing does not necessarily indicate that the authors of the Yizhuan (Ten Wings) intentionally distinguished between zheng and dang in the Yijing, it at least demonstrates that zheng and dang each possess their own distinct meanings. When the Yijing employs the compound term zhengdang 正當 (proper correspondence) to generate meanings, or in cases such as the Tuanzhuan 彖传 (Commentary on the Judgments) of the hexagram of Jian 蹇, which directly states “the positions are in correspondence to where they should be, thus being firm and auspicious, thereby governing the state in the proper and upright way” (dang wei zhen ji, yi zheng bang ye 當位貞吉，以正邦也) and joints zheng and dang. The Yijing directly combines the connotations of zheng and dang to form its interpretation. When the Yijing employs the terms separately, it refers to their own distinct meanings of zheng and dang. In view of this, before interpreting zheng in the Yijing, the present study will first interpret dang in the Yijing by combining etymological research and the original text of the Yijing.

Dang 當 belongs to a phonetic–semantic compound (xingsheng 形聲) character in Chinese. According to etymological research (xungu 訓詁), dang is composed of the radical part tian 田 (fields) and the phonetic component shang 尚. Its original meaning, as stated in the Shuowen Jiezi 說文解字: “fields equivalent in value” (tian xiang zhi ye 田相值也) (Xu 1978), takes the meaning of two fields being equivalent or corresponding. The Yupian 玉篇 explains dang as “Straight and upright (in worth)” (zhi ye 直也) (Gu 1987), further indicating that the original meaning of dang should be “direct correspondence” or “equivalent”. This shows the ancient meaning of dang is derived from comparisons existing in reality, revealing that dang is a concept at the level of practical, physical application. The Yupian also explains dang by “to bear/to undertake” (ren ye 任也) (Gu 1987). The Analects contains the usage “When in the face of benevolence (ren 仁), I shall not shirk it. I shall take the lead, even for my teacher” (dang ren bu rang yu shi 當仁不讓于師) (Chen and Xu 2015). Both examples support the view that dang refers to a concept of application. Zhang Dainian observes in his analysis of the concept of “当然” (dangran, that which is proper), the character dang 當 conveying a sense of being aligned with each other, to face each other, correspondence or matching between two things (Zhang 2002, pp. 344–49). This insight confirms that dang in the Yijing functions as a concept of practical correspondence rather than a moral imperative.

Ancient texts mostly employ dang to express consistency with corresponding times and positions. For example, the Lyushi Chunqiu 呂氏春秋 states “must correspond to its position” (bi dang qi wei 必當其位) (Liao and Chen 2004). The Liji 禮記 (Book of Rites) says, “In ancient times, when Heaven and Earth were in accord, the four seasons were in correspondance (dang); the people possessed virtue, and the five grains flourished” (fu gu zhe tian di shun er si shi dang, min you de er wu gu chang 夫古者天地順而四時當，民有德而五穀昌) (Hu and Zhang 2017). The usage of dang in the Yijing follows this pattern. The Yijing, which includes the Zhouyi proper and the classical commentary Yizhuan, employs dang in a total of 44 instances. Among these, 33 instances are directly used to describe whether a line is “in correspondence to the position it should be in” (dang wei 當位). The remaining 11 instances are compiled in

Table 1. The 11 instances that how dang is used in the Yijing.

How dang Is Used	The Instances in the Yijing
“In correspondence to the act it should be”	“The disciple carries the corpse, this indicates the action taken does not fit the appropriate act” (di zi yu shi, shi bu dang ye 弟子輿屍，使不當也) from the Xiangzhuan of the five line of the hexagram of Shi 師.
Describing “in correspondence to the position it should be in” (dang wei 當位)	“Attaining the position in correspondence to the position it should be in” (de dang ye 得當也) from the Xiangzhuan of the five line of the hexagram of Shihe 噬嗑.
Describing “in correspondence to the position it should be in” (dang wei 當位)	“Entangled by creeping thorns, this is because it is in correspondence to the position it should be in” (kun yu ge lei, wei dang ye 困于葛藟，未當也) from the Xiangzhuan of the topmost line of the hexagram of Kun2 困.
“The course in correspondence to Heaven and conforming to the people” (refer to Wang Bi’s commentary)	“Being cultured and bright yet joyous, greatly prosperous and upright; reforming in correspondence to Heaven and conforming to the people, its regret then vanishes.” (wen ming yi rui, da heng yi zheng, ge er dang, qi hui nai wang 文明以說，大亨以正，革而當，其悔乃亡) from the Tuanzhuan of the hexagram of Ge 革.
“In correspondence to the act it should be”	“The marrying off of the younger sister as a concubine, this is because it is not in correspondence to the act it should be” (gui mei yi xu, wei dang ye 歸妹以須，未當也) from the Xiangzhuan of the third line of the hexagram of Guimei 歸妹.
“In correspondence to the time it should be”	“Corresponding to the days of a period.” (dang qi zhi ri 當期之日) from the Xici 繫辭.
“In correspondence to the number it should be”	“Corresponding to the numbers of the ten thousand things.” (dang wan wu zhi shu ye 當萬物之數也) from the Xici 繫辭.
“In correspondence to the name it should be”	“Opening up and corresponding to the names.” (kai er dang ming 開而當名) from the Xici 繫辭.
“In correspondence to the text it should be”	“The text’s patterns not being in correspondence to the text it should be” (wen bu dang 文不當) from the Xici 繫辭.
“In correspondence to the age and era it should be”	“It corresponded to the end of the Yin dynasty.” (qi dang yin zhi mo shi 其當殷之末世) from the Xici 繫辭.
“In correspondence to the affairs it should be”	“It corresponded to the events of King Wen and tyrant Zhou.” (dang wen wang yu zhou zhi shi xie 當文王與紂之事邪) from the Xici 繫辭.

.

It can be reviewed that apart from “in correspondence to the position it should be in” (dang wei 當位), dang in the Yijing is also used to indicate correspondence with actions and phenomena. This further demonstrates that dang in the Yijing refers to a concept at the level of reality, corresponding to actions and phenomena (including time and position). Following the Yijing’s own interpretation “That which is above physical form is called the Dao (metaphysical); that which is within physical form is called the vessel (physical realm)” (xing er shang zhe wei zhi dao, xing er xia zhe wei zhi qi 形而上者謂之道，形而下者謂之器) in the Xici 繫辭, dang in the Yijing is precisely the “vessel” within physical form, one of the concepts through which the Yijing’s Dao manifests in reality. It broadly refers to correspondence with appropriate actions and phenomena as found in the Yijing.

This interpretation finds direct basis in symbolic numerology (Xiangshu 象數). In the Tuanzhuan and Xiangzhuan, the Yijing contains judgments on whether line images (yaoxiang 爻象) are in a position in correspondence to the position in theory (dang wei 當位). In later commentaries, this view of “in correspondence to the position in theory” (dang wei 當位) is further concretized into the positions of yin and yang line positions and even official ranks. Wang Bi, in his Zhouyi Lueli 周易略例, points out “The first and topmost lines represent the beginning and end of the entity, the before and after of affairs; therefore, positions do not have a constant classification, and affairs do not have a constant place. It is not possible to determine them by yin and yang” (chu shang zhe, ti zhi zhong shi, shi zhi xian hou ye, gu wei wu chang fen, shi wu chang suo, fei ke yi yin yang ding ye 初上者，體之終始，事之先後也，故位無常分，事無常所，非可以陰陽定也) (Luo 1980). This explains the view that the corresponding positions of yin and yang do not apply to all line positions. But yet, the phrase “not possible to determine them by yin and yang” clearly reveals that the image determined by yin and yang refers to the prerequisite to judge whether a position is in correspondence to its appropriate position in theory or not. In the Han dynasty, Yi scholars frequently used terms such as “attaining the position” (de wei 得位) and “losing the position” (shi wei 失位), as well as whether a position is zheng or not. Although the Yi scholars in the Han dynasty less frequently used the term dang wei 當位 in their annotations, this still sufficiently proves that the concept of dang wei 當位 is founded upon the phenomenal concept of images (xiang 象) differentiated by yin and yang.

This concept of dang wei 當位 within the symbolic numerology receives greater emphasis in the interpretations of Cheng Yi 程頤. A special case in point is his commentary on the Xiangzhuan of the topmost line of the hexagram of Xu 需. The hexagram of Xu states: “Although it is not in a position in correspondence to the appropriate position in theory, it is not a great loss” (sui bu dang wei, wei da shi ye 雖不當位，未大失也). Cheng Yi comments:

“Yin and yang are attached to odd and even; how could they be absent? However, consider the hexagrams; the first and topmost lines are not discussed in terms of dang wei. The reason for not being applicable to dang wei primarily refers to the meaning of beginning and end. Consider the first line of the hexagram of Lin 臨, the position is considered as in correspondence to its appropriate position in theory. Consider the case of the topmost line of the hexagram of Xu 需; it is said not to correspond to its appropriate position in theory. The topmost line of the hexagram of Qian 乾 is said to have no position. This refers to the position of official rank, not the position of yin and yang.” (yin yang xi yu qi ou, qi rong wu ye. ran zhu gua, chu shang bu yan dang wei. bu dang wei zhe, gai chu zhong zhi yi, wei da lin zhi chu jiu, ze yi wei wei zheng, ruo xu shang liu yun bu dang wei. qian shang jiu yun wu wei, jue wei zhi wei, fei yin yang zhi wei ye 陰陽系於奇偶，豈容無也。然諸卦，初上不言當位。不當位者，蓋初終之義，為大臨之初九，則以位為正，若需上六雲不當位。乾上九雲無位，爵位之位，非陰陽之位也.)

(Xiaoyu Wang 2011)

From this, it can be seen that the Yizhuan considers the topmost line of the hexagram of Xu to be not correspond to its theoretical image position, and Cheng Yi further attributes this not correspond to its theoretical position to the lack of position of “official rank”, revealing that the position can correspond to the phenomenal “official rank”. Whether referring to the positions of yin and yang lines or to official ranks, both point to the phenomenal notion of “correspondence” of the concept dang.

Based on this analysis, dang in the Yijing denotes correspondence with actions and phenomena, including time and position. It assesses whether a person’s actions and their current circumstances align with what is theoretically appropriate, rather than functioning as a moral imperative. To clarify the ethical implications of dang, we may situate it within an analytical framework employed in normative ethics (for instance, Kagan 1998; Frankena 1973), which distinguishes between moral justification, judgment, action, and consequence;3 dang in the Yijing represents a judgment on the current state of affairs and does not possess a powerful moral binding force. Without considering unconscious actions, which the Yijing does not address, the human process can be divided into the following four steps:

• Moral justification: The presupposed rationale for making moral judgments and choices.
• Moral judgments: The process of making moral decisions and choices.
• Moral acts: Actions chosen and executed after making moral judgments.
• Moral consequences: The results brought about by actions.

As discussed above, since dang in the Yijing should refer to correspondence with actions and phenomena including time and position, within normative ethics, dang would correspond to moral acts and moral consequences (for instance, what people do and the outcomes that follow, assessed for their fit with a theoretical ideal), rather than serving as moral justification or moral judgment to form moral norms. This view finds direct support in the original text of the Yijing. For instance, in the Xiangzhuan of the third line of the hexagram of Lin 臨 states “Approaching with sweetness, the position not corresponds to its theoretical one. If one is concerned about this, the fault will not last long” (gan lin, wei bu dang ye. Ji you zhi, jiu bu chang ye 甘臨，位不當也。既憂之，咎不長也), dang is merely a judgment on the objective position, rather than directly proposing a moral judgment as seen in statements such as “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; having shortcomings or imperfectness, one corrects them” (jian shan ze qian, you guo ze gai 見善則遷，有過則改) from the Xiangzhuan of the hexagram of Yi2 益 or “Steps taken with care and reverence, in order to avoid calamity” (lyu cuo zhi jing, yi bi jiu ye 履錯之敬，以辟咎也) from the Xiangzhuan of the hexagram of Li 離. Furthermore, in the Xiangzhuan of the fourth line of Kun2 困: “Coming slowly, the aim is directed downwards. Although the position does not correspond to its theoretical one, there is support” (lai xu xu, zhi zai xia ye. Sui bu dang wei, you yu ye 來徐徐，志在下也。雖不當位，有與也), the Yijing even points out that “does not correspond to its theoretical one” can still result in “having support,” indicating that “does not correspond to its theoretical one” (not being dangwei) is not an unacceptable situation within the philosophy of the Yijing.

The philosophy of the Yijing emphasizes the unity of humanity with Heaven and Earth. Drawing upon Wang Xinchun’s perspective on the philosophy of the Yijing:

“According to the view of the Yizhuan, the most ideal circumstance in human life is none other than the wondrous convergence of virtue (de 德), position (wei 位), and timeliness (shi 時). Timeliness is a kind of encounter, and position is also a kind of encounter; therefore, the convergence of these three can, in fact, be simply referred to as the convergence of virtue and timeliness, or the convergence of virtue and encounter. The Yizhuan reveals that the life circumstance of the wondrous convergence of virtue, position, and timeliness is, after all, extremely difficult for one to encounter. What people often encounter are circumstances of a lower order” (yi yi chuan zhi jian, ren sheng zui wei li xiang de jing yu, mo guo yu de, wei, shi san zhe de qi miao hui he. shi shi yi zhong yu, wei ye shi yi zhong yu, yin ci, san zhe de hui he, shi ji shang ye ke jian cheng wei de yu shi de hui he, yi huo de yu yu de hui he. yi chuan kai shi, de, wei, shi san zhe qi miao hui he de ren sheng jing yu, bi jing shi shen nan wei ren suo zao feng de, ren zhi suo feng, chang chang shi yi xie deng er xia zhi de jing yu 依《易傳》之見，人生最為理想的境遇，莫過於德、位、時三者的奇妙會合。時是一種遇，位也是一種遇，因此，三者的會合，實際上也可簡稱為德與時的會合，抑或德與遇的會合。《易傳》開示，德、位、時三者奇妙會合的人生境遇，畢竟是甚難為人所遭逢的，人之所逢，常常是一些等而下之的境遇.)

(Xinchun Wang 2001)

The concept of dang in the Yijing is precisely the judgment on whether one converges with timeliness and position. Since being in accord with timeliness and position is not necessarily something one can encounter, dang in the Yijing is merely a judgment on an ideal circumstance: being timely and in the appropriate position is certainly a good thing, but not being timely or not being in an appropriate position is not necessarily an unacceptable circumstance. Therefore, when placing dang within an ethical framework, dang does not correspond to external conformity in the judgment of line positions in the Yijing. The Tuanzhuan of the hexagram of Weiji 未濟 also clearly states: “Although the positions are not with dang, the firm and yielding correspond” (sui bu dang wei, gang rou ying ye 雖不當位，剛柔應也); “Weiji, success; the yielding attains the central position” (wei ji, heng; rou de zhong ye 未濟，亨；柔得中也). This shows that the Yijing judges that Weiji, even though it does not correspond to its theoretical positions, can, under specific conditions, still be “prosperity” (heng 亨) and “attain the central position(the mean)” (de zhong 得中). As a practical concept at the physical level, dang naturally can only reflect the circumstances within the Yijing, without forming a powerful moral binding force.

3. Zheng: Ideal Perfectness from Metaphysical to Reality

In contrast to the concept of dang, which pertains to the judgment on whether one converges with timeliness and position, zheng in the Yijing distinctly involves a metaphysical concept and constitutes a powerful moral binding force. This section will advance two central claims. First, while zheng is metaphysically grounded as an ideal of perfection (the “perfect way”), it also operates in the realm of practical circumstances. Second, one can be zheng even when not being dang, and conversely, being dang does not automatically make one zheng.

The character zheng 正 belongs to an indicative ideograph (zhishi 指事) character in Chinese. As described in the Shuowen Jiezi: “It means ‘correct’. It is composed of zhi 止 (to stop) and yi4 一 (one) used to indicate stopping” (shi ye. Cong zhi, yi yi zhi 是也。从止，一以止) (Xu 1978). The symbol resembling “one” above represents the target, and “zhi” below signifies stopping at. The character zheng 正 suggests “to stop at the one correct point”, which means to hit the mark. From the notion of “stopping at the target”, it can be seen that the original meaning of the character zheng 正 refers to “not deviating from the target”. Pre-Qin texts used zheng in several concrete senses, including taxation and military conquest.4 However, the Yijing never employs zheng in these senses. The relevant meaning for the Yijing refers to the third type: an ideal or perfect target, as seen in the Shijing 詩經: “Shooting all day at the target, never missing the perfect mark” (zhong ri she hou, bu chu zheng xi 終日射候，不出正兮) (Xiumei Wang 2015) and the Analects “If names are not in accordance with zheng and being ideal, then speech does not accord with reason” (ming bu zheng ze yan bu shun 名不正則言不順) (Chen and Xu 2015). The Yijing employs zheng in a total of 75 instances. Excluding two instances related to solar terms and directions in the Shuogua “Dui 兌 corresponds to exact autumn, the season when the myriad things rejoice” (Dui, zheng qiu ye, wan wu zhi suo shuo ye 兌、正秋也，萬物之所說也) and “Kan 坎 represents water; it is the hexagram of the perfect North” (Kan zhe, shui ye, zheng bei fang zhi gua ye 坎者、水也，正北方之卦也), the remaining instances of zheng in the Yijing are fundamentally based on its usage as the target of ideals or perfection. Furthermore, the Yijing also employs the character zheng2 征 separately to represent the first and second types of targets of zheng (taxation and conquest).

From multiple instances in the original texts of the Yijing, it is evident that zheng is distinctly a projection and manifestation of a metaphysical concept of perfect ideals. For example, the Tuanzhuan of the hexagram of Qian 乾 mentioned, “The dao (way) of Qian transforms and changes, enables each thing to perfect (zheng) its nature and destiny” (Qian dao bian hua, ge zheng xing ming 乾道變化，各正性命). The target to which zheng corresponds refers to the “original nature” (xing 性) and the “destiny” (ming 命). “Nature” and “destiny” are clearly not practical concepts in reality, but rather discuss the idealization of “original nature” (xing 性) and the “destiny” (ming 命) from a metaphysical perspective. Furthermore, the Tuanzhuan of the hexagram of Lin 臨 states “Being pleased and compliant, firm and central yet responsive, greatly prosperous through zheng; this is the dao (way) of Heaven” (shuo er shun, gang zhong er ying, da heng yi zheng, tian zhi dao ye 說而順，剛中而應，大亨以正，天之道也). It reflects that the Yijing uses zheng to interpret “the dao of Heaven”. Here the Tuanzhuan also serves as an interpretation of the hexagram image of Lin: “Coming to the eighth month, there will be misfortune and danger” (zhi yu ba yue you xiong 至於八月有凶) “Misfortune and dangerous in the eighth month” is clearly not a record of the behavior or phenomenon of “misfortune” occurring in the eighth month of a certain year, but rather describes the situation in Yiology where the vital material force (qi 氣) of yang 陽 (yangqi 陽氣) gradually wanes in the eighth month, and the situation where yang expands and flourishes cannot be maintained for long. From this, it can be seen that zheng in the Yijing is not a judgment of right or wrong concerning actions and phenomena. Conversely, zheng in the Yijing should refer to the metaphysical “perfect way” (zheng dao 正道), expressing the question of whether we are in accord with the “perfect way” (zheng dao 正道) and how we should accord with the ideal or perfection.

This understanding of zheng as the metaphysical “perfect way” (zheng dao) is consistent with its usage in other pre-Qin texts, such as the Zhuangzi, Laozi, and Shangshu5, though the Yijing gives it a distinct philosophical articulation.

Based on the original text of the Yijing, which does not itself explain or elucidate what zheng refers to, this study infers the meaning of zheng within the philosophy of the Yijing from its original text. From a conceptual definition, the concept zheng refers to the metaphysical perfect ideal, an abstract concept of a perfect ideal, broadly referring to the ideal perfect way (zheng dao). When zheng is projected and operates onto reality (for example, when applied to the framework of normative ethics), zheng expresses the question of whether we, at the reality level, are in alignment with the “perfect way” (zheng dao), and how we should be corresponding with the “perfect way” (zheng dao).

In the text of the Yijing, how the concept zheng is used depends on the object to which the character zheng is associated or corresponds (such as “original nature” (xing 性), the “destiny” (ming 命), “position” (wei 位), “will” (zhi2 志), and “acts” (xing2 行). There are generally two usages of the concept zheng in the Yijing. First, it is used to practice the metaphysical “perfect way” (zheng dao) through the deepening or interpretation of a certain concept as discussed above.6 Second, it is used to describe or apply to states at the reality level, such as to work with positions and affairs. In the Xiangzhuan of the fifth line of the hexagram of Bi 比, the Yijing mentions “The good fortune of manifesting closeness is due to the position being zheng and central” (xian bi zhi ji, wei zheng zhong ye 顯比之吉，位正中也). While the Xiangzhuan of the first line of the hexagram of Meng 蒙 states “It is beneficial to use punishment to set an example, in order to establish the law in accordance with zheng” (li yong xing ren, yi zheng fa ye 利用刑人，以正法也).

In contrast to the concept of dang, which involves judging correspondence to phenomena, time, and position, zheng refers to a concept that is considerably difficult to concretize. One of the most important reasons for this lies in the fact that the Yijing is a philosophy of change and transformation. As the Xici is said: “The ceaseless generation and regeneration of life constitutes ‘change’ (yi 易)” (sheng sheng zhi wei yi 生生之謂易). Within the philosophical framework of the Yijing, whose very essence is change, all things are subject to change and transformation. Zheng, in the Yijing, as an embodiment of “in accordance with the ‘perfect way’ (zheng dao 正道)” (he hu zheng dao 合乎正道) that pervades and exists universally across different circumstances and phenomena, cannot be defined by results, actions, or phenomena at the reality level. The Tuanzhuan of Qian states, “The dao (way) of Qian transforms and changes, enables each thing to perfect (zheng) its nature and destiny” (Qian dao bian hua, ge zheng xing ming 乾道變化，各正性命), pointing to one of the metaphysical functions of zheng: zheng cultivates the “original nature and destiny” (xing ming 性命) through the transformative process of “in accordance with the ‘perfect way’ (zheng dao 正道)”.

In the Xiangzhuan of the hexagram of Yi2 益, which states “The superior man (junzi 君子, virtue man), upon seeing goodness, moves towards it, and having shortcomings or imperfectness, corrects them” (jun zi yi jian shan ze qian, you guo ze gai 君子以見善則遷，有過則改), the Yijing expresses its view on dealing with zheng. Evidently, the superior man as defined in the Yijing as “to be in accordance with perfectness (zheng)” (zheng ye 正也) in the Tuanzhuan of the hexagram of Tongren 同人, should possess the qualities of “seeing goodness, moves towards it” (jian shan ze qian 見善則遷) and “having shortcomings or imperfectness, corrects them” (you guo ze gai 有過則改). This suggests that, in the thought of the Yijing, the agent being “in accordance with the ‘perfect way’ (zheng dao 正道)” should possess the qualities of “seeing goodness, moves towards it” (jian shan ze qian 見善則遷) and “having shortcomings or imperfectness, corrects them” (you guo ze gai 有過則改).

Re-examining the phrase “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; having shortcomings or imperfectness, one corrects them” (jian shan ze qian, you guo ze gai 見善則遷，有過則改) in the Yijing, we can observe that it forms a syntactical structure of a contrasting couplet presenting a positive and negative argument7. Upon careful scrutiny of the syntax and semantics, if the Yijing intended here to employ a contrasting couplet presenting positive and negative arguments, the concept opposing “goodness” (shan 善) should logically be its antonym, such as “not the goodness” (bushan 不善), “evilness” (e 惡), or “harmness” (hai 害) rather than the character “shortcomings or imperfectness” (guo 過). In other words, following conventional linguistic usage, the Yijing might have been expected to use a phrase like “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; upon seeing evilness, one corrects them” or “upon seeing goodness, one moves towards it; upon seeing not-goodness, one corrects it” rather than “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; having shortcomings or imperfectness, one corrects them”. The Yijing itself contains the phrase in the Xiangzhuan of the hexagram of Dayou 大有: “The superior man (junzi 君子, virtue man) thereby curbs evil and promotes goodness, in obedience to the excellent decree of Heaven” (jun zi yi e e yang shan, shun tian xiu ming 君子以遏惡揚善，順天休命). In the phrase, the Yijing clearly pairs “goodness” (shan 善) with “evilness” (e 惡). The Analects provides a similar linguistic example: “Choosing the good ones (shan zhe 善者) and following them; the not-good ones (bu shan zhe 不善者) and correcting them” (ze qi shan zhe er cong zhi, qi bu shan zhe er gai zhi 擇其善者而從之，其不善者而改之) (Chen and Xu 2015), where “goodness” is contrasted with “not the goodness”. This reveals that the Yijing’s use of “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; having shortcomings or imperfectness, one corrects them” likely carries a specific intended meaning.

Analyzing from a semantic and etymological perspective,8 the character guo (shortcomings or imperfectness) typically denotes an action or situation that fails to reach a state of perfection or ideal (deviating from correctness in action or results), but this does not necessarily equate guo with “evil”, “not the goodness”, “harm” or “badness”. Logically, failing to achieve a perfect ideal as imperfectness is not inherently “not the goodness”. Suppose in an examination, a perfect score of 100 is considered the ideal state. The top student, graded A+, in the class scored 90, which is less than perfect. However, this is clearly not a “not-good” or poor result. This reveals that although “not the goodness” can be seen as a manifestation of guo (shortcomings or imperfectness) or “not being with zheng” (bu zheng 不正), guo or “not being with zheng” itself is not necessarily “not the goodness”.

The phrases “seeing goodness, moves towards it” (jian shan ze qian 見善則遷) and “having shortcomings or imperfectness, corrects them” (you guo ze gai 有過則改) are both clearly processes of advancing towards the perfect ideal (zheng). The above analysis reveals that in the Yijing, these two phrases do not function as a contrasting couplet presenting positive and negative arguments, but rather form a relationship of supplementation or extension through their semantically related meanings. If the Yijing had employed an expression like “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; upon seeing evilness, one corrects them”, its moral philosophy would clearly present a bidirectional flow: how to judge and how to act when facing “goodness”, and how to respond when facing “evil” or “not the goodness”. This flow faces limitations when encountering things that cannot be clearly defined as “good” or “evil”, or when situated in a possible grey area that is “neither good nor evil”, people would find it difficult to gain opportunities for moral learning, improvement, and self-transcendence from it. Furthermore, for a superior man (especially the sages and the people close to sages) of extremely high moral standing who commits no evil deeds, this logic also appears not applicable. As long as the superior man does not encounter actions or ideas superior to his own, he need not learn or improve himself; as long as he commits no evil, he need not correct his shortcomings or imperfectness.

Based on the findings, it can be revealed that the moral philosophy of zheng in the Yijing focuses on the improvement and transcendence of imperfect states. “Seeing goodness, moves towards it” (jian shan ze qian 見善則遷) expresses a transformation towards greater goodness, a learning from goodness. “Having shortcomings or imperfectness, correct them” (you guo ze gai 有過則改) “Having shortcomings or imperfectness, correct them” (you guo ze gai 有過則改) expresses using perfection as a standard to guide people in continuously improving themselves, emphasizing the achievement of sublimation through the process of unceasing self-perfection, as the thought of the Yijing. In summary, “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; having shortcomings or imperfectness, one corrects them” (jian shan ze qian, you guo ze gai 見善則遷，有過則改) in the Yijing expresses the question “how can I become closer to perfectness and do better”, guiding people to advance towards the perfect ideal, essentially constituting an endless moral development.

The Xici mentions, “Renewal day by day is the hallmark of supreme virtue. The ceaseless generation and regeneration of life constitutes ‘change’ (yi 易). Forming images is what is called Qian. Imitating models is what is called Kun. Exhausting the numbers to know the past and future is what is called divination. Comprehending change with flexible adaptation is what is called affairs” (ri xin zhi wei sheng de. Sheng sheng zhi wei yi, cheng xiang zhi wei qian, xiao fa zhi wei kun, ji shu zhi lai zhi wei zhan, tong bian zhi wei shi 日新之謂盛德。生生之謂易，成象之謂乾，效法之為坤，極數知來之謂占，通變之謂事). Besides emphasizing the importance of change in the Yijing, the Xici also points out that the Yijing is a learning of comprehending change. This reveals that within the thought of “perfect way” (zheng dao, the metaphysical zheng) of the Yijing, rigidly adhering to a situational perfection (zheng in a reality situation) is highly possible to be less effective than flexible adaptation.

This line of thought indicates that the moral binding force of zheng in the Yijing derives from the “in accordance with the perfect way (zheng dao)” of comprehending change, daily renewal, unending self-strengthening, and eternally advancing towards perfection, rather than the rigid concern of situational perfection (zheng in a reality situation). As for what constitutes perfection in a given situation, or the opposition of zheng and not zheng as a kind of moral rigidity, these are not the highest core concerns of the Yijing. In the Xici, the Yijing further mentions “When circumstances come to an end, we should change. When we make changes, we have to become unobstructed. Only if we become unobstructed, longevity is achieved” (qiong ze bian, bian ze tong, tong ze jiu 窮則變，變則通，通則久). This shows that within the philosophy of change in the Yijing, “comes to an end” (qiong 窮, exhausted), even if it is in “perfection,” should also be subject to change; naturally, we cannot rigidly adhere to the situational perfection (zheng in a reality situation). Viewed from this perspective, although the Yijing values the “perfect way” (zheng dao, the metaphysical zheng), the situational perfection (zheng in a reality situation) is not the sole consideration in moral judgment.

Having established the metaphysical dimension of zheng as the “perfect way” (zheng dao), we now turn to its application in the immediate, phenomenal world. This shift is not incidental but essential to the Yijing’s philosophy. In the Yijing’s thought, a metaphysical ideal that cannot be enacted in concrete circumstances remains abstract. The Yijing therefore asks not merely what zheng is, but how one can be zheng (or fail to be so, in specific situations of time, position, and action). The following discussion addresses precisely this practical dimension, examining how the Yijing evaluates instances of “not zheng” (bu zheng) not as categorical moral failures, but as contingent circumstances that may still allow for moral cultivation and even good outcomes.

Regarding the immediate, phenomenal “not zheng” (bu zheng, imperfection in reality), the Yijing does not necessarily hold aversion or consider it definitely an unacceptable thing. The text of the Yijing contains expressions such as “to whom shall blame be laid” (wang he jiu 往何咎), “what blame be laid?” (he jiu 何咎), and “how utterly to blame” (he qi jiu 何其咎). For example, the hexagram statement of Kui 睽 states “Regret vanishes. The clan devours flesh, one bites through skin with one’s clan. Going forward, to whom shall blame be laid?” (hui wang, jue zong shi fu, wang he jiu 悔亡，厥宗噬膚，往何咎). The first line of the hexagram of Xiaoxu 小畜 mentions “Returning to its own way from the path, how utterly to blame? Auspicious” (fu zi dao, he qi jiu, ji 復自道，何其咎，吉). Using the interrogative character “he” (what/how) to express questioning, it is evident that the Yijing harbors doubts about whether imperfect things or bad results that should be considered to be blamed (jiu 咎, to blame in correspondence to a bad result) should ultimately be categorized as such. Taking the hexagram statement of Kui 睽 as an example, the Yijing adopts an attitude of “Going forward, to whom shall blame be laid” towards the “not zheng” of “presupposed regret” (regret vanishes) and “The clan devours flesh, one bites through skin with one’s clan”. This points out that “not zheng” (bu zheng, imperfection in reality) can, under the principle of “according with timeliness” (sui shi 隨時) and “according with position” (sui wei 隨位), be overridden by other positive factors.

The preceding analysis of “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; having shortcomings or imperfectness, one corrects them” reveals that the Yijing’s moral focus lies in the process of advancement rather than the judgment of a static condition. This prioritization of process is further evidenced by the text’s nuanced treatment of situations that are both “upright and steadfast”(zhen 貞) yet “unfortunate and ominous” (xiong 凶), a phenomenon termed “upright and steadfast, yet still unfortunate and ominous” (zhen xiong 貞凶). The Yijing uses zhen xiong to describe situations in reality that are “unfortunate and ominous” (xiong 凶). For instance, in the topmost line of the hexagram of Jie 節, the Zhouyi proper states “Although moderation and regulation (jie 節) is an upright and steadfast way, bitter moderations and regulations lead to unfortunate and ominous outcomes, and regret vanishes” (Ku jie, zhen xiong, hui wang 苦節，貞凶，悔亡). The XiangZhuan explains “Bitter moderations and regulations leading to unfortunate and ominous outcomes by an upright and steadfast way means its way is coming to the end and so exhausted” (Ku jie zhen xiong, qi dao qiong ye 苦節貞凶，其道窮也). Another example in the topmost line of the hexagram of Xun 巽, the Zhouyi proper states “Being compliant under the bed, losing one’s ‘tools of trade (axe) and capital’ (zi fu 資斧), leading to unfortunate and ominous outcomes by an upright and steadfast way” (Xun zai chuang xia, sang qi zi fu, zhen xiong 巽在床下，喪其資斧，貞凶). The XiangZhuan explains “Losing one’s tools of trade (axe) and capital means being zheng but in the midst of misfortune of ominous situations” (Sang qi zi fu, zheng hu xiong ye 喪其資斧，正乎凶也). These examples reveal that even if we are pursuing zheng or in an upright and steadfast way, we are still possible to face the misfortune of ominous situations. While judging the fourth line of the hexagram of Sui 隨as “upright and steadfast, yet still unfortunate and ominous” (zhen xiong 貞凶), the Yijing simultaneously indicates that this line can achieve “what blame be laid?” (he jiu 何咎) because of “having sincerity on the dao, thereby enlightening”. This illustrates that the Yijing holds that “unfortunate and ominous” (xiong 凶) does not necessarily constitute an imperfect thing or bad results that should be considered to be blamed (jiu 咎). It reflects the Yijing’s greater concern with how we should advance towards perfectness (zheng), rather than necessarily taking current imperfectness (bu zheng) to blame.

This prioritization of process over static judgment finds a powerful echo in Cyrille Javary’s interpretation of the formula “absence of blame/fault” (wu jiu 无咎). He argues that the term jiu (咎) in the Yijing does not carry the heavy moral weight of “sin” or “culpability” familiar from Western religious traditions. Instead, it signifies a state of being blocked, hesitant, or “out of sync” with the dynamic flow of the situation (bouchon, ‘blockage’). Consequently, the injunction wu jiu is not a certificate of moral innocence, but a call to decisive action, an encouragement to “not remain in a state of uncertain or hesitant mind” (Javary and Faure 2002, p. 9). This interpretation aligns perfectly with the present paper’s analysis of “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; having shortcomings or imperfectness, one corrects them”. The moral focus is not on whether one is currently zheng or faultless, but on the dynamic process of moving towards goodness and perfectness. A position can be “upright and steadfast, yet still unfortunate and ominous” (zhen xiong), but through the process of improvement and adaptation, one can still “have no blame to be laid” (he jiu). Thus, the moral imperative of zheng lies in the commitment to ceaseless self-renewal, not in the attainment of a flawless present state.

These examples of zhen xiong and he jiu collectively demonstrate that in the philosophy of the Yijing, situational perfection (zheng) or imperfection (bu zheng) is not the sole criterion for moral judgment. Situational perfection is an ideal, but situational imperfection is neither an unacceptable nor necessarily a bad outcome to be blamed. An action or state can be positionally “not dang”, or even yield ominous results (xiong), yet still not incur blame (jiu). As previously discussed in “The superior man (junzi 君子, virtue man), upon seeing goodness, moves towards it, and having shortcomings or imperfectness, corrects them” (jun zi yi jian shan ze qian, you guo ze gai 君子以見善則遷，有過則改), the moral focus in the philosophy of the Yijing lies primarily in “how we can be better, daily renew our virtue, and strive for ever greater perfection” instead of criticises “how perfect we are currently” or “whether the situation are currently close to perfection”. This reinforces the central argument of this section: the moral imperative of zheng is not about achieving a flawless present state, but about the agent’s commitment to a ceaseless process of self-renewal and alignment with the metaphysical perfect way zheng dao. It is a morality of becoming, not of being. This understanding of moral practice as an ongoing process naturally leads to the question of how one cultivates this capacity, which is the focus of the next section: the ways of cultivating zheng.

The Yijing’s practical pursuit of zheng is manifested in the practice of “The superior man, upon seeing goodness, moves towards it, and having shortcomings or imperfectness, corrects them”, while the human capacity to comprehend and adapt in accordance with the “perfect way” (zheng dao) is achieved through the ways of cultivating zheng in the subsequent discussion.

4. Meng 蒙 and Yi3 頤: The Ways of Cultivating Zheng

The concept of zheng in the Yijing originates from the metaphysical notion of “in accordance with the ‘perfect way’ (zheng dao 正道)” (he hu zheng dao 合乎正道). When zheng is applied to reality, it constitutes the moral imperative that “The superior man, upon seeing goodness, moves towards it, and having shortcomings or imperfectness, corrects them”. As for the practice (gongfu 工夫) of pursuing zheng, this refers to the way of cultivating zheng (yang zheng zhi dao 養正之道).

As revealed in the Xici: “If goodness does not accumulate, it is not sufficient to establish a name; if evil does not accumulate, it is not sufficient to destroy oneself” (shan bu ji bu zu yi cheng ming; e bu ji bu zu yi mie shen 善不積不足以成名；惡不積不足以滅身) and Weyan: “A family that accumulates goodness is sure to have abundant blessings; a family that accumulates evil is sure to have abundant calamities. When a minister murders his ruler, or a son murders his father, it is not the result of a single morning or evening; the causes from which it arises have gradually accumulated” (ji shan zhi jia, bi you yu qing; ji bu shan zhi jia, bi you yu yang. Chen shi qi jun, zi shi qi fu, fei yi chao yi xi zhi gu, qi suo you lai zhe jian yi 積善之家，必有餘慶；積不善之家，必有餘殃。臣弑其君，子弑其父，非一朝一夕之故，其所由來者漸矣). From the perspective of the Yijing, individual actions do not exist in isolation but are closely interconnected with their surrounding environment. Effects are produced through long-term accumulation. Reasoning from this, the practice (gongfu 工夫) of pursuing zheng in the Yijing should logically be a process of long-term accumulation, not a task accomplished in a single morning or evening. The Yijing directly describes this practice as “cultivating zheng” (yang zheng 養正), which appears in the context of two hexagrams. The Tuanzhuan of the hexagram of Meng 蒙 mentions “The enlightenment for the ignorance from childhood, thus to cultivate zheng, constitutes the work of the sage” (meng yi yang zheng, sheng gong ye 蒙以養正，聖功也). On the other hand, the Tuanzhuan of the hexagram of Yi3 頤 states “‘Nourishing’ (yi3 頤) is the upright and steadfast way that brings good fortune. If one cultivates zheng, then good fortune ensues” (yi zhen ji, yang zheng ze ji ye 頤貞吉，養正則吉也). This paper will classify “cultivating zheng” as “The enlightenment for the ignorance, thus to cultivate zheng” (meng yi yang zheng 蒙以養正) and “To cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” (yi zhi yang zheng 頤之養正), respectively, for interpretation. Through the above two ways of cultivating zheng, the cultivation of zheng in the Yijing can be understood in terms of four interrelated dimensions that will be discussed below. First, the individual must recognize their innate capacity to connect with the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth (tian di zhi xin 天地之心). This is the source of morality. Second, through “the enlightenment for the ignorance, thus to cultivate zheng” (meng yi yang zheng 蒙以養正), a person can get rid of the state of ignorance, remove wrong perceptions and beliefs, and learn proper moral knowledge. Third, through “to cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” (yi zhi yang zheng 頤之養正), a person can foster moral motivations and moral wills by proper “moderations and regulations” (jie 節) of desires. Fourth, through continuous self-renewal exemplified by “seeing goodness, one moves towards it; having shortcomings or imperfectness, one corrects them”, a person can acquire moral experience and practical knowledge by practice. It constitutes the ongoing practice of aligning with the zheng dao.

The interpretation “the enlightenment for the ignorance, thus to cultivate zheng” (meng yi yang zheng 蒙以養正) originates from the hexagram of Meng 蒙. As Xugua states, “Things, when born, are necessarily in a state of ignorance (meng 蒙); therefore it is followed by the hexagram of Meng 蒙. Meng signifies the immature state of things” (wu sheng bi meng, gu shou zhi yi meng, meng zhe wu zhi zhi ye 物生必蒙，故受之以蒙，蒙者物之稚也). The hexagram of Meng 蒙 precisely describes the state of ignorance necessarily inherent in all things at their initial stage of birth. The core idea of the hexagram of Meng 蒙 lies in “The enlightenment” (qi meng 啟蒙), which means enabling the ignorant to gradually understand principles and shed their ignorance through education or guidance. Chinese scholars have extensively discussed the meaning of “childlike ignorance” (tong meng 童蒙) in this context. Jiang Feng points out that according to the Xugua, “Meng signifies the immature state of things” (meng zhe wu zhi zhi ye 蒙者物之稚也), and this initial state is precisely when a thing is closest to the Dao and therefore most receptive to cultivation. Hence, “cultivating zheng” (yang zheng) is most effective when undertaken at this early stage (F. Jiang 2005, p. 20). Sun Ailing further argues that “meng” does not only refer to “dark and ignorant” in a pejorative sense, but specifically to the “childlike mind” (tong meng) that is pure, undifferentiated, and naturally inclined toward the Dao. This is why the Tuanzhuan declares that “The enlightenment for the ignorance from childhood, thus to cultivate zheng, constitutes the work of the sage” (meng yi yang zheng, sheng gong ye). Sun interprets “cultivating zheng” (yang zheng) as the cultivation of the “heart/mind of the Dao” (dao xin 道心), which involves both preserving the innate sincere heart and putting it into action by practicing the virtue of “generation and regeneration of life” (sheng 生) that Heaven and Earth embody (qi yong 起用) (Sun 2017, pp. 51–53).

This points out that the moral capacity for zheng in the Yijing is not innate, but rather needs to be acquired through human education or guidance. This point has also been noted by scholars. For instance, Liao Mingchun interprets “childhood ignorance” (tong meng 童蒙) as “shedding ignorance” (tuo meng 脫蒙) (Liao 2007). Jiang Wenhui states:

“The enlightenment for the ignorance from childhood, thus to cultivate zheng mainly involves eliminating obscurations, discarding distracting thoughts, and presenting the innermost natural emotions within oneself through introspection and realization, thereby returning to the most original state of clarity” (meng yi yang zheng, zhu yao tong guo qu bi, bing qi za nian, ba zi ji xin zhong zui nei zai zi ran de qing gan zai fan guan yu ti wu zhong cheng xian, cong er hui gui dao zui yuan shi de cheng ming zhi jing “蒙以養正”主要通過去弊，摒棄雜念，把自己心中最內在自然的情感在反觀與體悟中呈現，從而回歸到最原始的澄明之境).

(W. Jiang 2022)9

Feng Jingwu states:

“Simply put, ‘the enlightenment for the ignorance from childhood’ (meng yi yang zheng 蒙以養正) means educating people to behave and practice according to the perfect way (zheng dao), to become upright, honest, and morally noble individuals. That is, as stated in the Yijing’s hexagram of Meng 蒙: ‘The superior person, through resolute action, nurtures virtue’ (jun zi yi guo xing yu de 君予以果行育德), meaning ‘words must be sincere and actions must be resolute’, cultivating good character through decisive action” (jian dan di shuo, meng yi yang zheng, jiu shi jiao yu ren men zou zheng dao, zuo yi ge zheng zhi, cheng shi, pin de gao shang de ren. ye jiu shi xiang yi jing meng gua zhong suo shuo de na yang, jun yu yi guo hang yu de, ji yan bi xin, hang bi guo, yi guo gan de hang dong lai pei yu liang hao de pin de 簡單地說‘蒙以養正’，就是教育人們走正道，做一個正直、誠實、品德高尚的人。也就是像《易經·蒙卦》中所說的那樣：‘君予以果行育德’即‘言必信，行必果’，以果敢的行動來培育良好的品德.)

(Feng 2018)

The academia generally agrees that “the enlightenment for the ignorance, thus to cultivate zheng” (meng yi yang zheng 蒙以養正) refers to the process of removing ignorance, shedding ignorance, and moralizing a person. However, scholars have not clearly responded to the following two detailed questions: First, the source of moral motivation and zheng. Second, precisely how can one “behave and practice according to the perfect way (zheng dao)” and “present the innermost natural emotions within oneself through introspection and realization” actually achieve zheng?

Regarding the first question, this paper interprets that the source of zheng and moral motivation both lie within people themselves. As stated in the Xici:

“The Yi is in correspondence with heaven and earth, and therefore it can comprehensively encompass the way of Heaven and Earth. Looking up, we observe the patterns of the Heavens; looking down, we examine the principles of the Earth. Thus, we know the causes of the hidden and the manifest. Tracing things back to their origin and following them to their end, we know the theories of life and death. Essence and energy constitute things; the wandering soul causes change. Thus, we know the conditions and appearances of ghosts and spirits. It is similar to Heaven and Earth, and therefore does not go against them.” (Yi yu tian di zhun, gu neng mi lun tian di zhi dao. Yang yi guan yu tian wen, fu yi cha yu di li, shi gu zhi you ming zhi gu. Yuan shi fan zhong, gu zhi si sheng zhi shuo. Jing qi wei wu, you hun wei bian, shi gu zhi gui shen zhi qing zhuang. Yu tian di xiang si, gu bu wei 易與天地准，故能彌綸天地之道。仰以觀于天文，俯以察於地理，是故知幽明之故。原始反終，故知死生之說。精氣為物，遊魂為變，是故知鬼神之情狀。與天地相似，故不違.)

The philosophy of the Yijing originates from human beings emulating Heaven and Earth. Drawing upon Wen Haiming’s summary, the moral philosophy of the Yijing is “a system where human nature is completely connected with the nature of things and the nature of Heaven and Earth; this is a coherent system where the dao of Heaven infuses into the dao of humanity” (ren xing gen wu xing, gen tian di zhi xing wan quan xiang tong, zhe shi cong tian dao guan zhu dao ren dao de rong guan xi tong 人性跟物性、跟天地之性完全相通，這是從天道灌注到人道的融貫系統) (Wen 2019). Since the moral philosophy of the Yijing is the integration of the dao of humanity and the dao of Heaven, a person should inherently possess the foundation of human nature that connects with Heaven and Earth, and the dao of Heaven. This does not mean that a person is born able to attain zheng, but rather that a person is born with the condition for attaining zheng: the heart/mind (xin 心).

The Tuanzhuan of the hexagram of Fu 復 mentions “In ‘returning’ (fu 復), one sees the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth” (fu qi jian tian di zhi xin hu 復其見天地之心乎). It reveals the profound connection between the concept of “returning” (fu 復) and the “heart/mind of Heaven and Earth”. Through “returning” (fu 復), a person can perceive the “heart/mind of Heaven and Earth”. That is, the essential nature and operational principles of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things. This indicates that the human heart/mind possesses the capacity to connect with Heaven, Earth, and all things, and can sense and comprehend the fundamental laws of the cosmos. Wang Bi 王弼, in his commentary, further elucidates this view. Wang interprets “returning” (fu 復) as “returning to the original root” (fan ben 復本), meaning reverting to the original source. Wang Bi maintains that “Heaven and Earth take the root as their heart/mind” (tian di yi ben wei xin 天地以本為心), implying that the essence of Heaven and Earth is precisely the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth (Wang and Han 1989). Through the process of “returning and reverting to their root” (fu fan qi ben 復反其本), a person can connect with this heart/mind of Heaven and Earth. This perspective emphasizes the intrinsic connection between humanity and the cosmos, holding that human nature is fundamentally linked with the essence of Heaven and Earth.

Later philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Wang Fuzhi 王夫之 inherited and developed this line of thought. Cheng Yi stated, “The ruler of men (sage kings) does not inspect the four directions but observes the image of ‘returning’ (fu) and thereby accords with the dao of Heaven” (ren jun bu xing shi si fang, guan fu zhi xiang er shun tian dao ye 人君不省視四方，觀復之象而順天道也) (Xiaoyu Wang 2011). In his statement, Cheng Yi emphasizes that people should learn from the sage kings, accord with the way of heaven by observing the phenomenon of “returning” (fu 復). Wang Fuzhi directly pointed out “Human beings are the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth” (ren zhe, tian di zhi xin ye 人者，天地之心也) (Yang 2011). It reveals that Wang Fuzhi holds the view that human beings are the possessors of the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth and can embody the essence of Heaven and Earth. These views all corroborate that within the metaphysical system of the Yijing, human nature is in harmony with the essence of Heaven and Earth, and that human beings can achieve harmonious unity with Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things through inner cultivation and practice.

This thought in the Yijing provides later philosophers with an important metaphysical foundation, namely, that an intrinsic connection exists between human beings and Heaven and Earth. Through returning to their essence and the original heart/mind, people can perceive the essence of Heaven, Earth, and all things. However, this does not directly prove that everyone can, in reality, translate this inner perception into concrete action. It rather points to a possibility: that the human heart/mind possesses a source capable of responding to Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things. Whether this source can function in reality depends on the individual’s cultivation, practice, and understanding of and response to the external environment. Therefore, a person needs the process of “shedding ignorance” (tuo meng 脫蒙) and guiding oneself in accordance with the “perfect way” (zheng dao). This process precisely refers to “The enlightenment for the ignorance, thus to cultivate zheng” (meng yi yang zheng 蒙以養正).

“The enlightenment for the ignorance, thus to cultivate zheng” (meng yi yang zheng 蒙以養正) in the philosophy of the Yijing constitutes a spontaneous moral act. According to the description of meng in the hexagram statement of Meng 蒙: “It is not I who seek the ignorant child, the ignorant child seeks me” (fei wo qiu tong meng, tong meng qiu wo 匪我求童蒙，童蒙求我). “The enlightenment for the ignorance, thus to cultivate zheng” is clearly a spontaneous act of shedding ignorance characterized by “the ignorant child seeking me”. The Tuanzhuan further states, “It is not I who seek the ignorant child; the ignorant child seeks me. The aims and aspirations correspond” (fei wo qiu tong meng, tong meng qiu wo, zhi ying ye 匪我求童蒙，童蒙求我，志應也). This points out that meng yi yang zheng involves a “correspondence of aims and aspirations” between the “ignorant child” and the “whom the ignorant child seeks” (me), demonstrating that the individual themselves possesses the conscious moral motivation for meng yi yang zheng.

In view of this, the second question can be explained here. As mentioned earlier, in the philosophy of the Yijing, human nature is in harmony with the essence of Heaven and Earth, and human beings can achieve harmonious unity with Heaven and Earth and the myriad things through inner cultivation and practice. Coupled with the fact that the source of zheng and moral motivation both lie within the person themselves, to practice correspond to the “perfect way” (zheng dao) and “presenting the innermost natural emotions within oneself through introspection and realization” constitute precisely a form of cultivation and practice that returns to the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth, naturally aligning with zheng. Regarding the practice of the “way of cultivating zheng”, the Yijing further employs the interpretation of “To cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” (yi zhi yang zheng 頤之養正) to explain how a person can, step by step, become more aligned with the “perfect way” (zheng dao).

“To cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” (yi zhi yang zheng 頤之養正) originates from the hexagram of Yi3 頤. As stated in the Xugua: “Things, after being accumulated, can then be nourished; therefore it is followed by the hexagram of Yi3 頤” (wu xu ran hou ke yang, gu shou zhi yi yi 物畜然後可養，故受之以頤). The Xugua explains Yi3 頤 as “Yi3 頤 signifies nourishing and cultivating” (yi zhe, yang ye 頤者，養也) and the Zagua 雜卦 explains Yi3 頤 as “Yi3 頤 is cultivating zheng (yang zheng)” (yi, yang zheng ye 頤，養正也). This reveals the Yijing interprets the hexagram of Yi3 頤 through the concepts of “nourishing and cultivating” (yang2 養) and “cultivating zheng” (yang zheng). Thus, it suggests that Yi3 頤 should reflect the Yijing’s philosophy of cultivating zheng. The hexagram statement of Yi3 頤 says “It refers to the upright and steadfast way. Observe the Yi3, seek one’s own food from one’s mouth” (zhen ji. Guan yi, zi qiu kou shi 貞吉。觀頤，自求口實). The Tuanzhuan explains: “In Yi3 頤, the upright and steadfast way brings good fortune. If one cultivates zheng (yang zheng 養正), then good fortune ensues. Observe that Yi3 means observing what one nourishes and cultivates. Seeking one’s own food from one’s mouth means observing how one nourishes and cultivates oneself. Heaven and Earth nourish and cultivate the myriad things; sages nourish and cultivate the worthy, and thereby extend to the myriad people. How great is the timeliness of Yi3” (yi zhen ji, yang zheng ze ji ye. Guan yi, guan qi suo yang ye; zi qiu kou shi, guan qi zi yang ye. Tian di yang wan wu, sheng ren yang xian, yi ji wan min; yi zhi shi da yi zai 頤貞吉，養正則吉也。觀頤，觀其所養也；自求口實，觀其自養也。天地養萬物，聖人養賢，以及萬民；頤之時大矣哉). Here, the Tuanzhuan correlates “cultivates zheng then good fortune ensues” with the explanation of “the upright and steadfast way brings good fortune”, correlates “observing what one nourishing and cultivating” with the explanation of “Observe the Yi3, and correlates “observing how one nourishes and cultivates oneself” with “seek one’s own food from one’s mouth”. it can be seen that in Yi3 頤, where “cultivates zheng brings good fortune”, a moral person should not engage in unrestrained nourishing and cultivating. Instead, a moral person should observe, reflect upon, and exercise moderations and regulations regarding both “what they should nourish and cultivate” and “how they should nourish and cultivate”. Therefore, the Xiangzhuan of the hexagram of Yi3 states “The superior man is cautious in his words, thus regulate and moderate his eating and drinking” (jun zi yi shen yan yu, jie yin shi 君子以慎言語，節飲食). The hexagram of Yi3 interprets its “cultivating zheng” through the image of the superior man exercising moderations and regulations in speech and diet, demonstrating that “to cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” is premised on the moderations and regulations embodied in “being cautious in words, thus regulate and moderate his eating and drinking”.

From this perspective, “to cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” in the Yijing reveals two key points. First, “to cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” takes “moderations and regulations” (jie 節) as its premise. Second, the statement in “to cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” that “Heaven and Earth nourishes and cultivates the myriad things; sages nourishes and cultivates the worthy, and thereby extend to the myriad people.” (Tian di yang wan wu, sheng ren yang xian, yi ji wan min; yi zhi shi da yi zai 天地養萬物，聖人養賢，以及萬民) points out that sages cultivate zheng of myriad people including the worthies, while Heaven and Earth cultivate the zheng of the myriad things (including sages).

“To cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” takes “moderations and regulations” (jie 節) as its premise. According to the interpretation of the Yijing, “moderations and regulations” (jie 節) does not refer to the “bitter moderations and regulations” (ku jie 苦節) that suppresses all of a person’s desires, but rather a “moderations and regulations with measure and proper limits” (jie er you du 節而有度) that maintains moderation regarding one’s own desires. The hexagram statement of Jie 節 states “Bitter moderations and regulations, there should not be going through the upright and steadfast way” (ku jie, bu ke zhen 苦節，不可貞). The Tuanzhuan directly supplements this explanation: “Bitter moderations and regulations leading to unfortunate and ominous outcomes by an upright and steadfast way means its way is coming to the end and so exhausted. Being pleased yet acting in peril, exercising moderations and regulations (jie) in the appropriate position, and being central and zheng thereby achieving unobstructed passage. Heaven and Earth exercise moderations and regulations (jie), and thereby the four seasons are completed. Moderations and regulations (jie) are implemented through measures and proper limits, so as not to injure wealth and not to harm the people” (ku jie bu ke zhen, qi dao qiong ye. Yue yi xing xian, dang wei yi jie, zhong zheng yi tong. Tian di jie er si shi cheng, jie yi zhi du, bu shang cai, bu hai min 苦節不可貞，其道窮也。說以行險，當位以節，中正以通。天地節而四時成，節以制度，不傷財，不害民). “Exercising moderations and regulations (jie) in the appropriate position” (dang wei yi jie 當位以節) refers to moderations and regulations (jie) that correspond appropriately to time and position. “Heaven and Earth exercise moderations and regulations (jie) and thereby the four seasons are completed” refers to the natural alternation of the four seasons generated by the measured interaction of yin and yang between Heaven and Earth. “Moderations and regulations (jie) are implemented through measures and proper limits, so as not to injure wealth and not to harm the people” refers to the proper moderations and regulations (jie) in measures that are embodied in human relations and affairs. From this, it can be seen that moderations and regulations (jie) in the Yijing take “moderations and regulations with measure and proper limits” (jie er you du 節而有度) as its premise and purpose, rather than being merely “bitter moderations and regulations” (ku jie).

Returning to the discussion of “The superior man is cautious in his words, thus regulate and moderate in his eating and drinking” (jun zi yi shen yan yu, jie yin shi 君子以慎言語，節飲食) in the hexagram of Yi3 頤, it is evident that since “moderations and regulations” (jie 節) takes words and diet as its objects, this “moderations and regulations” clearly refers to the moderation of a person’s desires and intentions. Reasoning from the Yijing’s concept of “moderations and regulations with measure and proper limits” (jie er you du 節而有度), although “to cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” (yi zhi yang zheng 頤之養正) takes “moderations and regulations” (jie 節) as its premise, this moderation of a person’s desires is also a “moderation and regulation with measure and proper limits” (jie er you du 節而有度) aimed at corresponding appropriately to time and position and maintaining due measure, rather than being a mere “bitter moderation and regulation” (ku jie) on a person’s desires. This reflects that, besides considering humans to be born with a heart/mind (xin) that connects with Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things, the Yijing also does not oppose the fact that humans are born with desires.

As a book of divination, pursuing good fortune and avoiding misfortune is naturally one of the core concerns of the Yijing. By this logic, the Yijing certainly cannot negate human desires. However, this does not mean that the Yijing advocates indulging desires, or that it takes the pursuit of desires as its goal. On the contrary, within the philosophy of the Yijing, the rationality of desires lies in “according with the dao” (he dao 合道) and “being moderate” (shi du 適度). “According with the dao” refers to corresponding and harmonizing with the external circumstances of time and position, while “being moderate” means that a person should reasonably guide their own desires, rather than, as in the case of “the arrogant dragon will have cause for regret” (kang long you hui 亢龍有悔), allowing things to reverse after reaching an extreme.

This illustrates that, in the philosophy of the Yijing, humans inherently possess desires. In common with Xunzi’s theory of evil human nature (xing e), the Yijing likewise acknowledges that excessively indulged desires can produce bad outcomes. Therefore, the Yijing naturally opposes the excessive indulgence of desires. Following this line of reasoning, “to cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” in the Yijing is premised on the “moderation and regulation with measure and proper limits” (jie er you du 節而有度) and proper guidance of human desires. This reveals that within the philosophy of the Yijing, desires can occupy a considerably dominant weight in a person’s inner life. In other words, a person’s heart/mind (xin) can simultaneously possess both the component of desires and the innate capacity to connect with Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things (the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth). If a person’s desires are excessively indulged, the excessively indulged desires will come to dominate their heart/mind. Therefore, “to cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” is precisely the process of correctly guiding people’s instinctual desires, taken as its premise. Differing from Xunzi’s theory of xing e, the Yijing does not emphasize the transformation of nature through ritual and law. The Yijing’s attitude towards zheng refers to cultivating zheng instead of “transforming into zheng”. “Cultivating zheng” (yang zheng) indicates that the perfect way (zheng dao) in the Yijing is obtained through enlightening learning and nourishing cultivation, rather than through a transformation of innate nature. According to this study’s interpretation, “to cultivate zheng through yi3 頤” is precisely the process of cultivating the heart/mind, and correctly guiding desires by moderation and regulation with measure and proper limits” (jie er you du 節而有度). Through autonomous learning, the way of “cultivating zheng” enables a person to first discard distracting imperfect thoughts, correctly guide their desires, and thereby come to understand and realize the perfect way. Subsequently, through practice, the person cultivates and develops their heart of dao (dao xin 道心) that perceives the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth. Gradually, the person advances towards sagehood.

This also invites a comparative reflection on Mencius’ theory of innate goodness (xing shan 性善). For Mencius, the four sprouts (si duan 四端) of benevolence (ren 仁), righteousness (yi4 義), propriety (li2 禮), and wisdom (zhi3 智) are innately present in every human being. Thus, moral cultivation consists in “extending” the four sprouts to their fullest realization. The Yijing, by contrast, does not posit any pre-formed moral sprouts at birth. What the Yijing posits is a capacity: the heart/mind (xin 心) that can resonate with Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things, as seen in the phrase “In ‘returning’ (fu 復), one sees the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth” (fu qi jian tian di zhi xin hu 復其見天地之心乎). This capacity, however, is not yet moral goodness; it is merely the potential to perceive and align with the perfect way (zheng dao). Hence, the Yijing speaks of “cultivating zheng” rather than “manifesting” or “extending” an already-formed nature. This understanding also sheds new light on the previously quoted phrase “The dao (way) of Qian transforms and changes, enables each thing to perfect (zheng) its nature and destiny” (Qian dao bian hua, ge zheng xing ming 乾道變化，各正性命). The “perfecting” (zheng) of nature (xing) and destiny (ming) is not the actualization of a pre-existing moral essence, but rather a transformative achievement accomplished through the dynamic, creative process of the Dao of Qian. Precisely because this perfection is not innate, it requires the ongoing work of “cultivating” (yang 養).

This clarifies a crucial point: the Yijing does not posit a simplistic opposition between moral goodness and badness, moral goodness and desire. Instead, it recognizes that a person’s heart/mind simultaneously harbors a will of desire and a will of morality (in the narrow sense). The way to cultivate zheng does not suppress desire; rather, it guides both moral will and desire into a state of great balance and harmony (zhong he 中和). This harmony is achieved precisely through “moderations and regulations” (jie 节): not bitter suppression (ku jie), but a timely and positional moderation that allows the heart/mind to resonate with Heaven, Earth, and all things. Consequently, morality in the Yijing is not defined narrowly in terms of goodness or desire as such, but rather by the harmonious relationship between humanity and the external world (including nature and society). This harmony, once realized, naturally manifests as actions that are proper, upright, and beneficial to both self and others.

As for the moral source sought in “the ignorant child seeks me” (tong meng qiu wo 匪童蒙求我), the Yijing directly provides an explanation for the source from which one learns morality. Viewing this within the context of the hexagram of Yi3 頤, the statement “Heaven and Earth nourishes and cultivates the myriad things; sages nourishes and cultivates the worthy, and thereby extend to the myriad people.” (Tian di yang wan wu, sheng ren yang xian, yi ji wan min; yi zhi shi da yi zai 天地養萬物，聖人養賢，以及萬民) points out clearly does not merely mean that sages provide for and nurture the myriad people materially. On the contrary, “nourishing and cultivating” (yang2 養) here should be consistent with its usage in “cultivating zheng” (yang zheng) discussed earlier, taking the meaning of cultivating moral character and zheng. As a result, we can draw two conclusions from this. First, sages help cultivate the correctness of the worthy and even the myriad people. This also means that the source from which ordinary people learn morality comes from the teachings of the sages. Second, Heaven and Earth nourish the myriad things (including sages themselves). In the philosophy of the Yijing, the ultimate principles between Heaven and Earth, and the harmony of yin and yang, constitute the perfect way (zheng dao). Therefore, the zheng of the sages naturally originates from emulating the perfect way (zheng dao)of heaven and earth. This view can also find support in the text of the Yijing. For example, the Tuanzhuan of the hexagram of Guan 觀 states “Observing the spiritual way of Heaven, the four seasons do not deviate. The sages establish their teachings based on this spiritual way, and all under Heaven submit” (guan tian zhi shen dao, er si shi bu te, sheng ren yi shen dao she jiao, er tian xia fu yi 觀天之神道，而四時不忒，聖人以神道設教，而天下服矣). The Xici states, “The sages had the means to see the intricate mysteries of the world, and they drew analogies with their forms and appearances, symbolizing them according to their appropriate things. Therefore, they are called images. The sages had the means to see the movements of the world, and they observed their intersections and connections, in order to practice their rituals and regulations” (sheng ren you yi jian tian xia zhi ze, er ni zhu qi xing rong, xiang qi wu yi, shi gu wei zhi xiang. Sheng ren you yi jian tian xia zhi dong, er guan qi hui tong, yi xing qi dian li 聖人有以見天下之賾，而擬諸其形容，象其物宜，是故謂之象。聖人有以見天下之動，而觀其會通，以行其典禮). Both statements describe the sages observing the way of Heaven and Earth and emulating them.

The philosophy of the Yijing values harmony between human beings and the external world. The hexagram statement of Xiaoxu 小畜 mentions “Wealth enriches its neighbors” (fu yi qi lin 富以其鄰), the Xiangzhuan states “Not alone to be wealthy” (bu du fu ye 不獨富也). Moral practice in the Yijing should be founded on harmony and mutual benefit, rather than pursuing personal gain at the expense of others. This view is confirmed in the commentaries of ancient Chinese philosophers. For instance, Wang Bi, quoting Confucius, stated: “He benefits them by taking advantage of what is beneficial to the people” (yin min suo li er li zhi yan 因民所利而利之焉). Zhu Xi 朱熹said: “If those above have sincerity to benefit those below, then those below will have sincerity to benefit those above. Without asking, the great good fortune is known” (shang you xin yi hui yu xia, ze xia you xin yi hui yu shang yi. Bu wen er yuan ji ke zhi 上有信以惠於下，則下有信以惠於上矣。不問而元吉可知) (Liao 2009). Shao Yong 邵雍stated: “One who attains it treats others with centrality, zheng, and sincerity” (de zhi zhe, zhong zheng pu shi yi dai ren 得之者，中正樸實以待人) (Chen and Shao 2013). These all demonstrate the way of the superior man advocated in the Yijing’s philosophy, which benefits both oneself and others. Following this reasoning, the way of cultivating zheng in the Yijing involves autonomous moral learning, the proper guidance of desires, and the practice. This illustrates that the innate heart/mind of Heaven and Earth (daoxin, tian di zhi xin 天地之心) within a person is precisely the source and motivation for zheng in the Yijing. However, this moral source and motivation merely refer to a source. The innate heart/mind of Heaven and Earth needs to be inherited and developed. As stated in the Xici: “The virtue of the yarrow stalks is round and spiritual; the virtue of the hexagrams is square and wise; the meaning of the six lines is presented through change. The sages use this to purify their hearts/minds, withdraw and conceal themselves in secrecy, and share the fortunes and misfortunes with the people” (shi zhi de, yuan er shen; gua zhi de, fang yi zhi; liu yao zhi yi, yi yi gong. Sheng ren yi ci xi xin, tui cang yu mi, ji xiong yu min tong huan 蓍之德，圓而神；卦之德，方以知；六爻之義，易以貢。聖人以此洗心，退藏於密，吉凶與民同患). Even sages need to “purify their hearts/minds” (xi xin 洗心) through practice in the perfect way of zheng. This proves that the way of cultivating zheng in the Yijing is precisely a practical philosophy of cultivating the zheng of the heart/mind.

Zhang Dainian, in his Key Concepts in Chinese Philosophy, concludes different early Chinese thoughts on xing. The thoughts can be divided into two fundamental types: the “naturalistic” and the “priori” (xianyan 先验) line. The naturalistic line, whose representatives include Gaozi 告子, Xunzi, and later Dai Zhen 戴震, defines xing by “what is born” (sheng zhi wei xing 生之谓性). That defines xin by innate physiological faculties, perceptual capacities, desires, and the spontaneous activities of life. For this tradition, xing itself carries no predetermined moral content. While goodness (or badness) arises only from the guidance or transformation of these natural endowments. The priori line, represented by Mencius and the Cheng-Zhu school, takes the opposite approach. It identifies xing with the moral principles that distinguish humans from other beings, such as the four sprouts (si duan 四端) of benevolence (ren 仁), righteousness (yi4 義), propriety (li2 禮), and wisdom (zhi3 智). In this view, xing is inherently good or metaphysically grounded in the cosmic order; moral cultivation consists in extending or fully realizing this already-present moral nature (Zhang 2002, pp. 367–79).

The Yijing does not align comfortably with either of these two established frameworks. Unlike the a priori line, it does not posit an already-formed moral nature endowed with pre-existing sprouts of virtue. The Yijing nowhere claims that humans are born with innate benevolence (ren 仁) waiting to be extended. Conversely, unlike the naturalistic line, it does not treat human nature as merely a bundle of spontaneous desires and perceptions that require external correction. The Yijing offers a third path, one centered on the heart/mind (xin 心) and its capacity to resonate with the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth (tian di zhi xin 天地之心). As the Tuanzhuan of the hexagram Fu 復 states, “In ‘returning’ (fu 復), one sees the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth” (fu qi jian tian di zhi xin hu 復其見天地之心乎). This statement reveals that the human xin is not merely a cognitive or desiderative faculty but a site of potential communion with the cosmic order. However, this potential is not identical to moral perfection; it is a latent capacity that must be activated through a sustained process of cultivation (gongfu 工夫). The Yijing therefore speaks of “cultivating zheng” (yang zheng 養正) rather than “manifesting” or “extending” an already-perfected nature. In this sense, the Yijing’s moral philosophy is neither a naturalistic theory of spontaneous desires nor an a priori theory of innate moral principles. It is, instead, a practical philosophy of “purifying the heart/mind through practice” (yi shi xi xin 以事洗心), in which the agent gradually aligns her heart/mind with the perfect way (zheng dao 正道) through self-renewal, flexible adaptation, and the measured guidance of desires. This third path constitutes a distinctive and theoretically rich alternative within the spectrum of classical Chinese ethical thought.

5. Conclusions

In summary, zheng and dang in the Yijing differ considerably from the zhengdang 正當 (proper correspondence) discussed in contemporary moral philosophy and contemporary Chinese philosophy. Dang in the Yijing refers to a judgment on whether one converges with timeliness and position. Zheng in the Yijing refers to an ideal or perfection originating from the metaphysical level in correspondence to yinyang, “original nature and destiny” (xingming 性命), expressing the question of whether we are in accord with the “perfect way” (zheng dao), and how we should accord with the “perfect way” (zheng dao).

It is worth reiterating that the Yijing’s moral philosophy occupies a distinctive position within early Chinese ethics. Unlike Mencius, who grounds morality in an innate good nature that needs only to be cultivated, and unlike Xunzi, who sees human nature as evil and requires external ritual and law to transform it, the Yijing offers a third path. It posits that humans possess a heart/mind (xin) that can resonate with the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth, but this potential must be realized through an ongoing process of self-renewal, flexible adaptation to changing circumstances, and the proper guidance of desires. The central question of the Yijing’s moral philosophy is not “Is this action permissible or impermissible?” in a static sense, but rather “How can I do better? How can I move closer to the perfect way (zheng dao)?” This perspective provides a unique contribution to normative ethics, supplementing the standard focus on permissibility with a dynamic, process-oriented approach to moral cultivation and self-improvement.

Dang in the Yijing is merely a judgment on an ideal circumstance: being in accord with timeliness and position is not necessarily something one can encounter; being timely and in the appropriate position is certainly a good thing, but not being timely or not being in an appropriate position is not necessarily an unacceptable circumstance. As Xici said: “The ceaseless generation and regeneration of life constitutes ‘change’ (yi 易)” (sheng sheng zhi wei yi 生生之謂易), the Yijing is a philosophy of change and transformation. Reviewing the text of the Yijing, among the sixty-four hexagrams, those with lines not in corresponding positions (positions that are not dang) are not few. The Zhouyi proper and commentaries of the Yijing approach such lines more from the perspective of how we should face the present or future, how we should pursue good fortune and avoid misfortune, rather than directly judging positional inappropriateness as immoral and negating it. Since dang in the Yijing is merely a judgment on a theoretical circumstance, it naturally can only reflect the theoretical situations within the Yijing, without forming a powerful moral binding force.

Zheng in the Yijing is an abstract, metaphysical concept representing the perfect ideal, broadly referring to the ideal perfect way (zheng dao). The Yijing emphasizes the metaphysical level of zheng (accordance with the perfect way). As for what constitutes perfection in a given situation, this is not the highest core concern of the Yijing. In the philosophy of the Yijing, the situational zheng and bu zheng are not the sole considerations in moral judgment: perfection is good and an ideal case, but imperfection is not an unacceptable failure. Although zheng carries a strong moral imperative in the Yijing, it does not directly serve as the foundational premise for making specific moral judgments and choices. In the philosophy of the Yijing, zheng points to “how we can do better” (the Yijing values change; its most important consideration is not how well we are doing now, but how we can be better in the future), and that we ought to pursue the “perfect way” (zheng dao). The moral focus in the philosophy of the Yijing lies primarily in “daily renewal of virtue and striving for ever greater perfection”, rather than in “how we are now” or “whether we are currently close to perfection”. As for moral judgment and choice, these depend on the person’s heart/mind (xin). A person who accords with the “perfect way” (zheng dao)will naturally harmonize with Heaven, Earth, and the external world, and make moral judgments and choices. However, the “perfect way” (zheng dao) itself does not directly operate on moral judgment and choice.

The practice (gongfu) of pursuing the “perfect way” (zheng dao) in the Yijing is termed the “way of cultivating zheng”. The source of zheng refers to the person’s own heart/mind, specifically the heart of dao (dao xin), which can resonate with Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things, and perceive the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth. However, the heart of dao (dao xin) is merely an origin (its weight is not significant at the outset); a person’s heart/mind simultaneously possesses a component of desires. The Yijing does not oppose or reject desires. Rather, consistent with its philosophy of the mean between yin and yang, the Yijing opposes excessive and indulgent desires. The “way of cultivating zheng” in the Yijing involves first learning moral knowledge from the teachings of the sages, as well as from observing Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things and emulating them, while simultaneously correctly guiding one’s desires. On this foundation, the person who cultivates zheng (yang zheng) gradually puts this into practice, inheriting and developing their heart of dao (dao xin)throughout this process, allowing the heart of dao to guide the desiring heart. As indicated by the Xici, “the one-by-one alternation of yin and yang is called the Dao. That which continues it is goodness; that which completes it is nature. The one with ren (benevolence) sees it and call it ren; the wise one sees it and call it wisdom” (yi yin yi yang zhi wei dao, ji zhi zhe shan ye, cheng zhi zhe xing ye. Ren zhe jian zhi wei zhi ren, zhi zhe jian zhi wei zhi zhi 一陰一陽之謂道，繼之者善也，成之者性也。仁者見之謂之仁，知者見之謂之知), concepts such as ren (benevolence), moral goodness are products derived from our heart/mind continuing and completing the Dao.

This illustrates that the philosophy of the Yijing is a philosophy of cultivating the heart/mind through practice. Referring Tang Wenming’s thought: “The fundamental reason why the human heart/mind possesses the capacity to respond to the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth is that human nature is endowed by Heaven and Earth” (ren xin zhi suo yi ju you gan ying tian di zhi xin de neng li, qi gen ben yuan yin shi ren xing bing yu tian di 人心之所以具有感應天地之心的能力，其根本原因是人性稟於天地) (Tang 2020). The heart of dao (dao xin) (the original state of the human heart/mind that corresponds with heaven, earth, and the myriad things) is the subject of the Yijing’s moral philosophy. Wu Fei offers the following explanation of the heart/mind of heaven and earth:

“From the perspective of the philosophy of nature and destiny, the proposition of the heart/mind of heaven and earth discusses the delineation of the relationship between nature and civilization. On the one hand, it greatly values the nature of the heart/mind of Heaven and Earth that generates things; on the other hand, it endows human civilization with lofty significance. This was already very well presented in the classical tradition from the Han to the Tang dynasties. Within the scholarly system of the Song dynasty, it received even more profound philosophical developments and interpretations.” (cong xing ming lun zhe xue de jiao du kan, tian di zhi xin zhe yi ming ti suo lun shu de, jiu shi zi ran yu wen ming guan xi de li ding, ta yi fang mian fei chang zhong shi tian di sheng wu zhi xin de zi ran, ling yi fang mian you fu yu ren lei wen ming yi chong gao de yi yi. zhe yi dian cong han tang jing xue chuan tong zhong yi you fei chang hao de cheng xian. zhi song xue ti xi zhong, de dao le geng shen ke de chan shi 從性命論哲學的角度看，“天地之心”這一命題所論述的，就是自然與文明關係的厘定，它一方面非常重視天地生物之心的自然，另一方面又賦予人類文明以崇高的意義。這一點從漢唐經學傳統中已有非常好的呈現。至宋學體系中，得到了更深刻的闡釋).

(Wu 2022)

In conclusion, this paper has demonstrated that zheng in the Yijing involves the cultivation of a “heart/mind perfectness” (xin zheng 心正) through the acquisition of moral knowledge and the proper guidance of desires. The “perfect way” (zheng dao) thus represents a practical philosophy realized through the ongoing practice of “purifying the heart/mind” (xi xin 洗心).