Hearing the Distant Temple Bell Toll: A Discussion of Bell Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry

Abstract

This article explores the literary significance of the bell as an important image in the poetry of Taixu 太虛 (1890–1947), a renowned modern Chinese Buddhist reformer and poet–monk. While the bell has long-held symbolic meaning in Buddhist ritual and Chinese literary traditions, its role in poetry has often been overlooked in favor of material culture studies. This article addresses that discrepancy by examining how Taixu inherited and reinterpreted classical bell imagery to articulate his personal emotions and religious philosophy. Following close analysis of more than sixty of his poems, it argues that Taixu used the bell not merely as a traditional image but also as a vehicle for expressing two core Buddhist concepts: mental purification and transcendence of the mundane. The article also highlights his creative pairing of the bell with other classical Chinese images—such as sunsets, moonlight, mountains, and forests—to form complex imagery groups. Taixu’s skillful execution of this technique exemplifies the considerable literary talent and spiritual insight that enabled him to blend Buddhist doctrine with poetic expression to remarkable effect. Overall, his poetic corpus may be considered as both a continuation and a transformation of classical Chinese poetry traditions, affirming his identity as a modern poet–monk who possessed profound esthetic and philosophical vision.

1. Introduction

Taixu, a prominent monk and influential Buddhist leader, played a crucial role in the development of Chinese Buddhism in the first half of the twentieth century. He advocated for a Buddhist revolution and actively promoted Buddhist reform. He developed the concept of “Buddhism of the human realm” (renjian fojiao 人間佛教), encouraged the academic study of Buddhism, and played a key role in modernizing Buddhist thought in China.

However, despite extensive studies on Taixu’s Buddhist movements,1 his talent as a poet is often overlooked. His deep connection with traditional Chinese poetry can be traced back to his upbringing and education. Both his grandmother and his youngest uncle were accomplished poets, so Taixu received effective guidance in the genre throughout his formative years (TDQ: XXXI: 156–160).2 Thereafter, he continued to hone his poetic skills through collaborations with mentors, associates, disciples, and students,3 with his first poetry collection, Meian Shilu 昧盦詩錄 (The Poetry Collection of Meian; published 1916), serving as a testament to his burgeoning prowess (TDQ: XXXI: 197).4 He had written more than a thousand poems by the time of his death in 1947, with the vast majority of these subsequently collated in the “Shicun 詩存” (Poetry Collection) chapter of the Taixu Dashi Quanshu 太虛大師全書 (Collected Works of Master Taixu), a comprehensive anthology edited primarily by Yinshun 印順 (1906–2005),5 one of Taixu’s most distinguished disciples. Many of these works are characterized by the poet’s deft use of a variety of images, including lamps, candles, wine, tea, and bells.

An essential instrument in both ancient and modern Chinese monasteries, the bell not only carries profound significance for Buddhists but also features prominently in classical Chinese literature, particularly poetry. Bells were used in music-making and as ceremonial objects in the Western Zhou 西周 (1046–771 BCE) period, then became important tools for keeping track of time during social activities following the establishment of the Eastern Han dynasty 東漢 (25–220).6 Buddhist temples began to use bells for timekeeping from around the sixth century onwards (Zhu 2018),7 and the bell first featured as a Buddhist image in literary works dating from the Tang唐 dynasty.

大鐘，叢林號令資始也。曉擊即破長夜，警睡眠；暮擊則覺昏衢，疏冥昧。

The large bell, echoing through the monasteries, marks the beginning. Its morning toll shatters the long night, rousing sleepers; its evening toll dispels the dusk, dispersing obscurity.8

Li Bai 李白 (701–762)9—a renowned Tang poet who was deeply influenced by Buddhism10—was one of the first to employ this type of imagery, paving the way for subsequent writers:

• 樹深時見鹿，溪午不聞鐘。
• In the thick woods a deer is seen at times,
• Along the stream [I] hear no noonday bell.11

It is intriguing that this short couplet begins with a seemingly straightforward description of the poet’s surroundings—woods, deer, stream—but then suddenly references an object that has no place in that environment: the noonday bell. This raises the question of why Li Bai chose to incorporate such an apparently incongruous image in the poem. It could be that the bell was such a popular Buddhist image at the time that he used it subconsciously.

Yet, despite the bell’s prevalence in the works of Li Bai and countless other eminent classical poets, scholars have tended to focus on its role in Buddhism solely from a material culture perspective.12 This article attempts to rectify this oversight by investigating bells from a literary perspective.

A host of modern Chinese poets—including the poet–monks Xuyun 虛雲 (1840–1959), Jing’an 敬安 (1852–1912)13, Hongyi 弘一 (1880–1942), and Su Manshu 蘇曼殊 (1884–1918)14—inherited their classical predecessors’ fascination with bells, often incorporating them into their poetry. Similarly, Taixu mentions bells in no fewer than sixty-five of his poems.

Such prolific use of bell imagery raises several questions that this article will attempt to answer:

• Why does the bell feature so prominently in Taixu’s work?
• How can we connect the bell to his life experiences?
• Which Buddhist ideas does the bell represent?
• How does Taixu use the bell to convey his personal emotions?

Additionally, the article will explore the ways in which Taixu combined the bell with other traditional Chinese images in his poetry.

2. Origins of the Bell in Taixu’s Poetry

Taixu’s use of bell imagery in his poetic works can be traced to both his awakening and his study of—and attempts to emulate—classical Chinese poetry.

In Buddhist texts, monks’ awakenings are usually associated with specific—often musical—sounds. For example, in the Baizhang Huaihai chanshi yulu百丈懷海禪師語錄 (Recorded Sayings of Master Baizhang Huaihai),15 a monk’s awakening is triggered by the sound of a drum:

有僧。聞鼓聲。舉起鋤頭。大笑歸去。師云。俊哉。此是觀音入理之門。後喚其僧問。你今日見甚道理。云某甲早晨未喫粥。聞鼓聲歸喫飯。師乃呵呵大笑。

A monk hears the sound of a drum, and in response [he] raises a hoe and bursts into laughter before returning to his home. The master remarks, “What a fine sight! This is the gate through which Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara) enters the ultimate truth.” Later, he summons the monk and asks, “What profound truth did you realize today?” [The monk] replies, “This morning, I hadn’t eaten my porridge yet. When [I] heard the drum sound, [I] returned to have my meal.” Upon hearing this, the master laughs heartily.16

In his account of this episode, Baizhang Huaihai 百丈懷海 (719–814)17 explicitly connects the monk’s awakening to the sound of the instrument he hears. It is not mere coincidence that the two occur simultaneously.

Likewise, Taixu repeatedly linked his own awakening—which occurred during his seclusion on Putuo Mountain 普陀山 in 1914—to a tolling bell:

一夜，在聞前寺開大靜的一聲鐘下，忽然心斷…回復根身座舍的原狀，則心斷後已坐過一長夜，心再覺系再聞前寺之晨鐘矣。

One night, Upon hearing the resounding toll of a bell in the temple in front [i.e., Puji Monastery 普濟寺], [my] mind was suddenly severed from the mundane world […] Returning to the original state of the physical body sitting in meditation, it was a long night had passed since the mind was severed, and the sound of the morning bell in [Puji Monastery] was perceived again.18

閉關二三個月後，有一次晚上靜坐，在心漸靜時，聞到前寺的打鐘聲，好像心念完全被打斷了，冥然罔覺，沒有知識，一直到第二天早鐘時，才生起覺心。

After two or three months of seclusion, one evening during a period of calm meditation, I heard the striking of the bell from [Puji Monastery]. It was as if my thoughts were completely interrupted, and I lost consciousness, devoid of knowledge. This continued until the next morning, when the morning bell rang, and only then did my awakened consciousness arise.19

吾昔在普陀閉關，有一時忽覺妄想俱歇，身心若亡，聞寺中鐘聲，即自心不一不異，俱無方所，少頃念起，複現塵境，聞鐘聲仍自外來。

During my seclusion on Putuo [Mountain], there was a moment when all delusions suddenly ceased, and my body and mind seemed to vanish. In this state, I heard the bell of [Puji Monastery], and my own mind was neither the same nor different, without any fixed location. After a while, thoughts arose again, and the worldly environment reappeared, with the sound of the bell still perceived as coming from outside.20

As these narratives demonstrate, Taixu accorded the bell a significant role in his awakening: the night bell “shattered” his mind, while the morning bell helped him regain consciousness. In light of this, it is scarcely surprising that bell imagery features so prominently in many of the poems he composed after this event.

Moreover, Taixu was a diligent student of classical poetry (TDQ: XXXI: 159–175), so he would have been familiar with his predecessors’ incorporation of bell images in their work. For instance, in the Quan Tang shi全唐詩 (Complete Collection of Tang Dynasty Poetry),21 the bell features in 1206 poems, including 42 by Bai Juyi 白居易 (772–846),22 one of Taixu’s favorite poets23 (Fu 2007, pp. 192, 211). In the following example, Bai Juyi relates the silence and stillness of a desolate winter to the moment when an evening bell stops tolling:

• 庭草留霜池結冰，黃昏鐘絕凍雲凝。
• Frost lingers on garden grass, ice forms on the pond,
• The dusk bell ceases; frozen clouds congeal.24

It is safe to assume that Taixu came across this and dozens of similar poems in the course of his studies, and that they had a profound influence on his own work, given his frequent references to dusk bells, and his use of such imagery to express his emotions.

3. The Bell and Buddhism

In other poems, the bell symbolizes Taixu’s adherence to his Buddhist beliefs. For example, he heard the tolling of the temple bell during a visit to Xiaoxuefeng Temple 小雪峰寺25 (Yinshun 2011, p. 196) over the Chinese New Year in 1930:

• 林翠蔭含山外路，蕉香風送寺前鐘。
• In the forest, green shade veils the mountain path,
• Fragrant wind delivers the temple bell’s sound.26

Here, Taixu uses the term song 送 (deliver) to describe the transmission of the bell’s sound. This is an unconventional usage of the term, as song generally refers to the transfer of either a physical object or an idea, rather than a sound. Moreover, he himself usually followed the traditional usage: for example, he described the wind delivering coolness and the fragrance of lotus flowers.27

This raises the question of why Taixu deviated from tradition with regard to the bell. The answer seems to lie in his realization that it could be used to evoke two significant aspects of his religious life: purification and transcending the mundane.

3.1. Purification (Qingxin 清心)

Purification of the mind is a fundamental concept in Buddhism.28 In Wudeng huiyuan 五燈會元 (Compendium of Five Lamps),29 Baizhang Huaihai provides a detailed explanation of what it entails:

靈光獨耀，迥脫根塵。體露真常，不拘文字。心性無染，本自圓成。但離妄緣，即如如佛。

Radiant with spiritual illumination, transcending the mundane world, revealing the essence of the eternal truth, unconstrained by mere words. The nature of mind remains untouched by impurities, inherently complete and whole. Liberated from delusive attachments, embodying the enlightened nature akin to that of a Buddha.30

Taixu expressed his pursuit of this ideal state in his poetry:

• 溪聲鳥語清心耳，林翠巒光遠市囂。
• Stream sounds and birdsong purify mind and ear,
• Green forests and mountain light distance the city’s clamor.31

Here, the suggestion is that a pure mind may be achieved by returning to nature—somewhere far from the commotion of the secular world. Taixu revisited this idea in another poem, written in 1931:

• 數杵鐘聲聞遠寺，悠然策杖32過林坰。
• Hearing the distant temple bell toll,
• Leisurely, [I] walk with my staff through the outskirts of the forest.33

On this occasion, it is not only Taixu’s immersion in the natural world but also the faint sound of the temple bell that purifies his mind. In other words, purification may be found in the monastic lifestyle as well as nature. This is a recurring theme in Taixu’s poetry. For instance, he wrote the following verse on a trip to Japan in October 1917 (Yinshun 2011, pp. 58–59):

• 隔樹幽溪消世慮，聞鐘梵刹見僧儀。
• Beyond the trees, the secluded stream dispels worldly cares,
• Hearing the temple bell, [I] witness the monks’ demeanor.34

Here, two important symbols of the monastery35—the bell and the monks’ rituals—transport Taixu back to his familiar monastic life and thereby help him disregard his worldly concerns and purify his mind.

3.2. Transcending the Mundane (Chushi 出世)

Transcending the mundane is another key feature of Mahāyāna Buddhism:

用大，能生一切世間、出世間善因果故。

[Mahāyāna’s] great power is that it can generate wholesome causes and effects in all worlds and beyond all worlds.36

Many ancient Chinese poets—both Buddhist and non-Buddhist—embraced this concept. For example, Tao Qian 陶潛 (365–427),37 a famous poet of the Eastern Jin 東晉 dynasty (317–420), felt that he transcended the mundane by abandoning his career as a government official and instead following a simple but fulfilling rustic life:38

• 晨興理荒穢，帶月荷鋤歸。
• [I] weed at dawn though early still,
• I plod home with my moonlit hoe.39

This is just one of countless poems in which Tao Qian conveys the satisfaction he experiences through the completion of routine daily tasks.

Taixu was deeply influenced by Tao Qian’s work (TDQ: XXXI: 193),40 as is evident in the following account of his own attempts to transcend the mundane:41

慕勝求真之為想，或不滿意於現前之生活而別慕高遠，或不信任於幻眾之境界而推求真實，如希生天，願生淨土，及修世出世之定慧等。

Aspiring for the ideal and seeking truth often stem from dissatisfaction with one’s current life and a longing for something higher and more distant, or from a mistrust of the illusory nature of the world and a quest for reality. This includes desires such as being reborn in heavenly realms, wishing for rebirth in a pure land, and cultivating worldly and transcendent states of concentration and wisdom.42

Therefore, according to Taixu, his pursuit of transcendence was motivated by dissatisfaction with the mundane world coupled with a yearning to experience a higher spiritual realm.43

In Buddhist texts, this goal is often evoked through bell imagery. For example, in Fa yuan zhu lin 法苑珠林 (Pearl Forest of the Dharma Grove),44 a comprehensive Buddhist encyclopedia, bells symbolize liberation from suffering and the attainment of transcendence:

若打鍾時，願一切惡道諸苦並皆停止。

When the bell is struck, may all the sufferings of the evil realms cease.45

Taixu takes this symbolism a step further in his poetry by using the bell to evoke two distinct aspects of transcendence. On the one hand, he identifies bells with the heavenly realms (shangjie 上界), and thereby implies that transcendence is an elusive state that most mortals—including himself—find hard to achieve. Consequently, he is filled with longing when he hears a bell tolling in the lower realms (xiajie 下界):46

• 最愛劍門回首望，雲間飛渡數聲鐘。
• I love most to turn back and gaze at Jianmen Pass,47
• Amid the clouds, a few bell sounds drift across.48

• 夕陽寒靄南天外，數杵鐘聲落上封。
• In the cold twilight mist beyond the southern sky,
• The sound of a tolling bell falls on Shangfeng Monastery.49

In the first of these poems, the sound of a bell “drifting across” (feidu 飛渡) the clouds symbolizes the difficulty of transcending the mundane. In the second, Taixu’s yearning for transcendence intensifies when he hears the sound of a bell “falling” on the monastery.

On the other hand, Taixu sometimes suggests that transcendence is possible if one maintains one’s true nature in the secular world:

• 鐘聲生滅裏，溪水自潺湲。
• Amid the bell’s arising and ceasing,
• The stream flows gently on its own.50

• 付與鐘聲自生滅，滿階春草未須刪。
• Leave the tolling of the bell to arise and cease on its own,
• The spring grass covering the steps calls for no trimming.51

Here, the arising and ceasing of the bell symbolize the rise and fall of all things in the world. Taixu, like the flowing stream and the freely growing spring grass, maintains his true nature, thereby achieving transcendence.

At this point, it should be stressed that Taixu did not equate transcending the mundane with rejecting the mundane:

於入世之志，具出世之胸襟，必以佛法為歸宿，乃得安身立命。

The goal must be to engage with the mundane world while possessing the mindset of transcending the mundane and perceiving Buddhism as the ultimate refuge, thereby achieving peace and fulfillment in life.52

Therefore, although he viewed transcendence as an important ideal and aspiration, Taixu clearly understood that even devout Buddhists had to function in the real world. This was why he urged his students not only to study the Buddhist teachings (as a route to achieving transcendence) but also to participate in social activities (rushi 入世).53

4. The Bell’s Temporal Dimension

In Taixu’s poetry, the bell frequently represents some of his deepest emotions, including both joy and sorrow, with each emotion conveyed through specific reference to the time of day when the bell is tolling: night, dusk, or morning.

4.1. The Night Bell (Yezhong 夜鐘)

The bell’s ring is more distinct when it does not have to compete with the hustle and bustle of the daylight hours, so it is more likely to catch the attention of poets once night has fallen. Zhang Yue 張說 (667–731)54 was the first to use this particular image in his poetry:

• 夜臥聞夜鐘，夜靜山更響。
• Sleeping at night, [I] hear the night bell,
• In the stillness of night, the mountains resound even more.55

Many centuries later, Taixu also used the bell to signify the peace and quiet of night-time:

• 寒山寺,56 鐘聲到客船。
• At Hanshan Temple,
• The sound of the bell reaches the guest boat.57

This short couplet provides clear evidence of the strong influence of Tang poetry on Taixu’s work, as he borrowed these lines almost verbatim from the most famous poem about a night bell, Fengqiao yebo 楓橋夜泊 (Mooring by Maple Bridge at Night), by Zhang Ji 張繼 (715–779):

• 姑蘇城外寒山寺，夜半鐘聲到客船。
• Outside Suzhou City, at Hanshan Temple,
• The sound of the midnight bell reaches the guest boat.58

In Taixu’s poetry, the tolling of a bell at night typically symbolizes hope and his own salvation, as the following couplet demonstrates:

• 絕頂平原擴萬峰，宵寒月落一聞鐘。
• On the summit, the plain stretches to ten thousand peaks,
• In the cold night, as the moon sets, a bell is heard.59

After creating a strong sense of insecurity by placing himself in the midst of a vast, dark mountain range, Taixu hears a bell that will guide him back to the sanctuary of the temple. Without it, he would surely be lost.

4.2. The Dusk Bell (Muzhong 暮鐘)

Poets have often used the transition from day to night to evoke sorrow. For instance, Li Bai wrote:

• 暝色入高樓，有人樓上愁。
• Dusk falls upon the tall tower,
• Someone on the tower is filled with sorrow.60

Qian Zhongshu 錢鐘書 (1910–1998)61 offered one explanation of why this is such an effective technique:

蓋死別生離，傷逝懷遠，皆於黃昏時分，觸緒紛來。

The sorrow of parting in death, the pain of separation in life, and the longing for what is lost all arise at dusk, stirring a multitude of emotions.62

In Taixu’s poetry, the tolling of a bell at dusk generally signifies the second of these, as in the following example:

• 君疑我已死，我意君應存。…訪君來千裏，白雲傳暮鐘。
• You [Huimin] might think I am dead,
• While I believe you should still be alive.
• […]
• I traveled a thousand miles to visit you,
• The dusk bell echoes through the white clouds.63

Taixu and his friend Huimin惠敏64 had not seen each other for more than ten years (TDQ: XXXIV: 246), but they arranged to meet in 1923 to discuss the establishment of new Buddhist associations. However, after three days together, they had to go their separate ways once again due to their busy schedules (TDQ: XXXI: 243)—a reluctant parting marked by the ringing of the dusk bell.

The intense sorrow evoked by the dusk bell is even more evident in another of Taixu’s poems:

• 鐘聞催別思，回首夕陽紅。
• The bell’s sound hastens thoughts of parting,
• [I] turn back, seeing the sunset glow.65

Here, for Taixu, the bell signifies the necessity of an upcoming parting, “hastening” (cui 催) his sorrow.

4.3. The Morning Bell (Chenzhong 晨鐘)

Ancient poets used the morning bell simply to signify the start of the working day. For example, in the following poem by Jia Dao 賈島 (779–843),66 it signals the moment when his official duties begin:

• 曉鐘催早朝，自是赴嘉招。
• The morning bell hastens the early court,
• Naturally, it is time for the imperial summons.67

Taixu’s use of morning bell imagery is more complex, symbolizing not only the start of a new working day but also the worldly concerns that must be faced each morning:

• 送到寺鐘催早起，朅來吟伴擾遲眠。詩思偶逐秋聲壯，瘧勢曾因暑病添。
• The temple bell prompts an early rise,
• Here [I] come, disturbed in sleep, my thoughts awake.
• Poetic musings follow autumn’s robust cries,
• My fevered state once worsened by summer’s wake.68

Taixu composed this poem during his seclusion on Putuo Mountain, when he suffered sleep deprivation on account of writing long into the night, coupled with illness brought on by the summer heat. As a result, he feared rather than welcomed the tolling of the morning bell. Moreover, this apprehension persisted long after his years of seclusion, as is evident in a poem he wrote in 1935:

• 幾回起視深宵盡，忽已晨鐘報五更。
• Several times [I] rise to see the deep night end,
• Suddenly the morning bell announces the fifth watch.69

Taixu tosses and turns throughout the night, unable to sleep, then suddenly hears the morning bell that signals the start of a new day. At this moment, he is filled with trepidation—he would rather remain in bed than deal with the tasks that await him.

To reinforce this sense of dread, Taixu often combined morning bell imagery with descriptions of the bleaker side of nature:

• 一枕覺來風雨止，泉聲謖謖曉鐘淒。
• Awakening from a nap to find the wind and rain have ceased,
• The murmuring of the spring and the mournful morning bell.70

Here, the bell, wind, rain, and murmuring spring collectively evoke the poet’s despondency.

Nevertheless, despite his personal aversion to the morning bell, Taixu would occasionally use it to convey a sense of optimism:

青年諸君就是破曉之陽光，昏夜之警鐘，將來之救世主。

Young people are the dawn’s sunlight, the alarm bell at night, and the future saviors of the world.71

Therefore, young people are to the future what the alarm bell is to the night: the ringing of the bell signifies the end of night and a new life force emerging from the darkness, just as young people embody the vitality of future society and are the main drivers of social change and development.

5. The Bell’s Spatial Dimension

Taixu frequently used bell imagery to represent three distinct aspects of physical space: distance (yuan 遠), separation (ge隔), and sparsity (shu 疏).

5.1. Distance

In classical Chinese poetry, a tolling bell is often heard from a great distance. For example, in Wenzhong 聞鐘 (Hearing the Bell), the poet–monk Jiaoran 皎然 (730–799)72 recalls:

• 古寺寒山上，遠鐘揚好風。
• An ancient temple atop the cold mountain,
• The distant bell resounds through the good wind.73

The historian Ge Zhaoguang 葛兆光explains why Chinese poets so often associate physical distance with the sound of a ringing bell:

中國人聽鐘聲鈴聲一貫不願把自己與聲音置在一處，而一定要遠遠地隔開。近處的鐘聲聒耳仿佛瓦釜雷鳴，只能令人震驚煩躁，而遠處的鐘聲卻悠渺蒼茫，可以令人想入雲外。

Chinese people have always preferred to hear the sound of bells and chimes from a distance, rather than close to them. The sound of a nearby bell is harsh and jarring, akin to the noise of clattering pots, causing only shock and irritation. By contrast, the sound of a bell heard from afar is ethereal and expansive, allowing one’s thoughts to drift beyond the clouds.

(Ge 1991).

Taixu frequently juxtaposed this sonorous, distant bell with evocative descriptions of natural phenomena:

• 鐘磬遙響空，松杉寒映扉。
• Bells and chimes echo distantly in the void,
• Cold pines and cedars reflect on the door.74

In other poems, the faint sound of the bell clearly represents the remoteness of the temple that houses it, and therefore Taixu’s distance from his spiritual home:

• 新東街接兩茅蓬，俯覽微聞遠寺鐘。
• The new eastern street leads to two humble huts,
• Looking down, barely hearing the distant temple bell.75

• 鐘聲傳遠寺，塔影臥荒丘。
• The bell’s sound echoes from the distant temple,
• The pagoda’s shadow lies across the desolate hill.76

5.2. Separation

The modern poet and philosopher Zong Baihua 宗白華 (1897–1986) offers the following thoughts on the subject of separation, a concept that features prominently in traditional Chinese culture:

美感的養成在於能空，對物象造成距離，使自己不沾不滯，物象得以孤立絕緣，自成境界。

The cultivation of beauty lies in ethereal emptiness and void, keeping a distance from objective things and forming your realm. All these images of material can be isolated and create realms in and of themselves.77

In classical Chinese literature, a number of image groups, such as ge lian kan yue 隔簾看月 (“viewing the moon through parted curtains”) and ge shui kan hua 隔水看花 (“observing flowers across water”) (Fu 2007, p. 222), are frequently used to convey the state of separation. Other poets prefer the somewhat simpler image of the bell, as the following example by the prominent late Tang poet Wen Tingyun 溫庭筠 (812–866)78 demonstrates:

• 龕燈落葉寺，山雪隔林鐘。
• Altar lamps, fallen leaves, the temple,
• Mountain snow, the bell separated by the trees.79

At first glance, the meaning of these lines seems straightforward: the poet hears the sound of a distant temple bell echoing through the trees. However, according to Fu Daobin 傅道彬, Wen Tingyun composed this poem while residing within the temple—that is, he was in close proximity to the bell when he heard it, not on the other side of a wood (Fu 2007, p. 222). In light of this, we can only assume that he conveyed a sense of separation from the bell simply for artistic effect.

Taixu’s account of a similar experience seems much more natural and fluid in comparison:

• 鐘聲悠邈隔林通，寺在深蒼密翠中。
• The sound of a bell drifts far, reaching through the forest,
• The temple is in the deep greenery.80

In this instance, there is a palpable sense of Taixu enjoying the sensation of the sound waves reaching his ears after filtering through the forest, presumably because that was what actually happened.

5.3. Sparsity

In Chinese poetry, the term “sparse bell” (shuzhong 疏鐘) is often used to describe the faint tolling of a distant or muffled bell. For instance, Liu Shang 劉商 (727–805)81 evokes the tranquility of the night as follows:

• 青眼82能留客，疏鐘逼夜歸。
• Green eyes can keep guests,
• Sparse bells urge the night to end.83

It is precisely because the night is so peaceful that the poet can hear the sparse bells.

Similarly, in one of Taixu’s early poems, the tolling of a sparse bell conveys the stillness of an evening on Putuo Mountain:

• 遙指濃陰處，疏鐘古佛家。
• Pointing to a place deep in the dense shade,
• The sparse bell sounds from an ancient Buddhist abode.84

As night fell, it became increasingly difficult to identify the exact location of the temple. However, Taixu was able to point it out with confidence as soon as the bell started ringing, even though the sound was barely audible.

6. Bell Image Groups

Taixu combined the bell with other classical Chinese images to create several image groups. Those that feature most prominently in his poetry are discussed below.

6.1. The Bell at Sunset (Xiyang Wanzhong 夕陽晚鐘)

The sunset is a common feature of classical Chinese poetry, often used to express the poet’s regret over the imminent disappearance of something beautiful, including the sun itself. For example, a famous poem by Li Shangyin 李商隱 (813–858)85 includes the lament:

• 夕陽無限好，只是近黃昏。
• The sunset seems so sublime,
• Yet it nears its waning hours.86

Taixu inherited this tradition of using sunsets to express regret. As mentioned earlier, he generally incorporated dusk bells in his poetry to convey the sorrow of parting. However, the meaning changes when this image is juxtaposed with a sunset. For example, in Zhaobao shan wanghai 招寶山望海 (Gazing at the Sea from Mount Zhaobao),87 a very early poem dating from 1911, the tone is undoubtedly regretful rather than sorrowful:

• 脈脈斜陽裏，微聞鐘磬敲。
• In the gentle slanting sunlight,
• The faint sound of bells and chimes can be heard.88

A strong sense of regret is similarly evident in Gusu youzong 姑蘇遊蹤 (Wandering in Gusu), written in 1929:

• 卻愛湖山秋色裏，鐘聲數杵送斜暉。
• In the autumnal scenery of lakes and mountains,
• A few strikes of the bell accompany the sunset.89

Here, Taixu watches helplessly as the beautiful lakes and mountains fade from view with the setting sun. The gradual nature of this process—and Taixu’s deepening regret—is highlighted by the fact that the landscape’s disappearance is “accompanied” (song 送) by the rhythmical tolling of the dusk bell.

6.2. The Bell and the Bright Moon (Mingyue Zhongsheng 明月鐘聲)

In classical Chinese poetry, the moon90 not only illuminates poets’ surroundings but also inspires them to write.91 The distinguished poet–monk Qiji 齊己 (863–937)92 explained the role it played in his creative process:

• 月華澄有象，詩思在無形。
• The moonlight is clear, revealing forms,
• Poetic thoughts arise from the formless.93

Of course, moonlight is not a constant. The moon’s appearance varies depending on whether it is full, gibbous, half, or crescent, the time of night, whether it is cloudy or clear, and the specific location from which it is observed, inspiring a wide range of contrasting emotions, all of which have been expressed in poetic form. Additionally, when a bell rings in moonlight—be it bright or veiled—poets naturally connect the two images. For example, Li He 李贺 (790–816)94 wrote:

• 古刹疏鐘度，遙嵐破月懸。
• An ancient temple’s sparse bell echoes,
• A distant mist parts, revealing the suspended moon.95

This image group also features in Taixu’s poetry:

• 琴彈無盡意，鐘擊普門經。96 後夜窺寒月，秋聲曲徑聽。
• Plucking the zither, endless meanings arise,
• The bell rings, reciting the Pumen jing.
• Later in the night, [I] gaze at the cold moon,
• Listening to the sounds of autumn along the winding path.97

Autumnal nights are often bleak, easily evoking a sense of melancholy. As Taixu strolled on such a night, the unexpected sounds of a bell and zither soothed the negative emotions brought on by the natural surroundings, and he paused to appreciate the bright moon hanging in the night sky.

In another poem, the ringing bell is a welcome accompaniment to the moonlight, rather than a precursor to it:

• 郤愛梵鐘聞遠寺，一灣新月照人行。
• [I] am especially fond of hearing the bell from the distant temple,
• As a crescent moon lights the path beneath my steps.98

Here, the moon and the bell are portrayed as two old friends of Taixu: the moon illuminates his path, while the bell whispers softly in his ear, providing emotional support. Hence his “fondness” (ai 愛) for them.

6.3. The Echoing Bell in Mountains (Shenshan Mingzhong 深山鳴鐘)

Mountains provide a vast space in which bells may reverberate, increasing their auditory impact. Therefore, these two images are often juxtaposed in classical poetry, as the following couplet by Cen Shen 岑参 (718–769)99 demonstrates:

• 昨夜山北時，星星聞此鐘。
• Last night, to the north of the mountain,
• [I] heard this bell amid the stars.100

When using this image group, Taixu does not merely situate the tolling bell in a mountainous environment but also emphasizes the impact of the latter on the former:

• 五磊飛微雪，千峰蕩暮鐘。
• Wulei Mountain scatters light snow,
• A thousand mountains reverberate with the dusk bell.101

Here, the otherwise silent, snow-capped landscape amplifies the peals of the bell so they echo across the surrounding peaks.

In other poems, Taixu substitutes valleys for mountains to achieve a similar effect:

• 懸崖千丈102瀑，空穀一聲鐘。
• A thousand-zhang waterfall cascades from the hanging cliff,
• In the empty valley, a single bell tolls.103

In this case, the sound of water continually splashing off the rocks complements the rhythmical tolling of a bell in the valley, which suggests monastic activity. Hence, humanity and nature are living side by side in harmony.

6.4. The Bell in a Forest (Canglin Wenzhong 蒼林聞鐘)

As discussed earlier, Taixu’s poetry frequently conveys physical separation by describing the way in which the sound of a bell travels through a forest before reaching his ears. For example:

• 撥翠披雲上，林端落午鐘。
• Parting the emerald leaves and ascending through the clouds,
• At the forest’s edge, the noontime bell falls.104

In other poems, Taixu follows the example set by his classical predecessors105 by using the verb “pass” (du 度) to indicate the transmission of a bell’s peals through the trees, and therefore his separation from the source of the sound:

• 疏林度梵鐘，幽卉含妙香。
• Passing through sparse forests, the Buddhist bell chimes,
• Hidden flowers carry a subtle fragrance.106

• 雜零鐘碎梵，飛度長林。
• Scattered and fragmented, the bell’s chime
• Passes through the long forest.107

7. Conclusions

The bell is a traditional Chinese image that features prominently in much of Taixu’s poetry as he uses it to express both a range of personal emotions and his Buddhist beliefs, especially those connected to his awakening, which occurred during his seclusion on Putuo Mountain. Therefore, there is far more to his repeated use of bell imagery than mere personal preference or even a desire to emulate his classical predecessors.

In Taixu’s poems, the bell often signifies one of two important Buddhist concepts: purification of the mind or transcendence of the mundane. He achieves the first of these simply by returning to the sanctuary of the monastery or by walking through nature, in both cases accompanied or guided by the sound of a tolling bell. By contrast, he highlights the difficulty of transcending the mundane by associating it with a bell ringing in the heavenly realms, yet also emphasizes that transcendence is possible if one maintains one’s true nature in—and continues to engage with—the secular world.

Taixu’s “remarkable talent and unique spirit” (xiongcai qiqi 雄才奇氣)108 are also evident in his skillful use of bell imagery to express a host of different emotions. For example, the night bell symbolizes his hope and salvation, the dusk bell evokes the sorrow he feels when parting from a friend, and the morning bell conveys his worldly concerns. Similarly, hearing a distant bell, physical separation from a bell, and the faint ringing of a bell all have significant, and quite distinct, meanings in Taixu’s poetry.

Finally, he combines the bell with other classical Chinese images to form four main image groups: the bell at sunset, through which he expresses regret; the bell under a bright moon, which symbolizes his inner peace; a bell echoing through the mountains, which hints at the coexistence of humanity and nature; and a bell’s chimes traveling through a forest, which underscores the listener’s separation from the source of the sound.

In conclusion, Taixu uses the bell as a means to express and clarify his life experiences, religious beliefs, and personal emotions. In so doing, he not only demonstrates considerable literary talent and profound devotion to Buddhism, but also affirms his identity as a poet–monk.