From Divination to Virtue and Action: The Confucian Hermeneutic Approach to the Yijing Through Decisive Phrases (Duanci 斷辭)

Abstract

The Confucian hermeneutic approach to the Yijing 易經 (or Book of Changes) delineates a transition from the pursuit of divinatory meaning to the cultivation of virtue and action. As an integral part of the Yijing’s semantic framework, decisive phrases (Duanci 斷辭)—such as those denoting auspiciousness or ominousness—not only reflect historical efforts to ascertain the significance of divinatory cases, but also embody a distinct normative orientation inherent in the text’s teachings. This orientation not only guides human action but also shapes moral character, which in turn provides the foundation for virtuous and effective action. The interpretive paradigm initiated by Confucian exegetes thus offers valuable insights for contemporary theories of ethics and practical philosophy.

1. Introduction

The study of the Yijing remains a vital and evolving endeavor. As Cheng Chung-Ying observes: “Understanding the Yijing is an ongoing task” (Cheng 2011, p. 25)—a task complicated by interpretive divergences across historical periods and cultural traditions. Since the 16th century, facilitated by Jesuit missionaries, extensive translation and scholarly engagement with the text have not merely fostered cross-cultural dialogue but have revealed deep fissures in its interpretation. Whether considering the term Di 帝 in the Yijing as “the (Supreme) Ruler” (Medhurst 1847, pp. 232–41) and James Legge’s translation of the same term as “God” (Legge 1852, p. 66)—along with the claim that one could “Climb the Oriental ladder of wisdom and move onward, upward and Godward” through the Yijing (Murphy 1970, p. 21)—or McClatchie’s interpretation of the text as reflecting elements of pagan phallic worship (McClatchie [1876] 1973, p. xiii), we notice that these early Western translators all exhibited a shared tendency to view the Yijing as the product of a radically ‘other’ culture. From this perspective, they either neglected or dismissed the divinatory foundations of the Yijing, and naturally paid little attention to the Confucian exegetical tradition that centers on decisive phrases (Duanci 斷辭).1

An alternative intellectual path that seeks to draw on the ancient wisdom of the Yijing approaches the text from a psychological perspective—treating its archaic divinatory records and decisive phrases as a manual for navigating real-life situations. In the foreword to Wilhelm-Baynes’ translation of the Yijing, Carl Jung interprets the Yijing’s decisive phrases on the auspicious and the ominous through the lens of human interiority, particularly the interaction between the unconscious mind and the external world (Jung 1950, pp. xxi–xxxix). Similarly, Geoffrey Redmond, in his translation and commentary, underscores the importance of exploring the divinatory meanings of decisive phrases through psychological frameworks (Redmond 2017, pp. 406–7). Richard J. Smith further argues that decisive phrases contain explicitly divinatory material that reflects positive prognostications or adopts a nonjudgmental expression, suggesting a universal psychological predisposition to recall positive cases (Smith 2008, pp. 16–17). That is, people tend to remember favorable outcomes more readily than unfavorable ones.

Since Confucius, the interpretation of the Yijing has been closely associated with the objective of “providing teaching according to the spiritual Way” (shen dao she jiao 神道設教) (Zhu 2020, p. 130). The pursuit of the divinatory meaning is intertwined with virtue and guidance of action, shaping the understanding of divinatory symbols and rhetorical expressions. The interpretation of the Yijing, represented by decisive phrases such as those denoting auspiciousness (ji 吉) and ominousness (xiong 凶), plays a pivotal role in determining the significance of the text. As the authors2 stated in the Treatise on the Appended Remarks (Xici zhuan 繫辭傳, hereafter cited as Treatise, Part A, Section 11): “There are phrases appended to them, which is how it announces itself. They determine the auspicious and ominous, which is how it makes decisions” (Zhu 2020, p. 282, translation slightly modified). These decisive phrases form the core lexical framework for comprehending the fundamental value orientation of the Yijing.

It is precisely along this line of thinking that later Confucian scholars of the Yijing devoted themselves to interpreting the text through what they regarded as the Confucian-authored Ten Wings (Shiyi 十翼). Based on decisive phrases concerning auspiciousness and ominousness, “simple value-neutral descriptions of events that appeared in the judgments and line statements of the ‘original’ Changes increasingly became prescriptions for proper behavior” (Smith 2014, p. 149). As a key figure in Neo-Confucianism, Zhu Xi 朱熹 (d. 1200) returned to the Treatise to examine the methods of divination and the principles underlying the Yijing interpretation. (Zhu 2020, pp. 317–22). He emphasized both the moral and didactic functions of decisive phrases, as well as their normative role in evaluating outcomes. In doing so, he not only echoed a Confucian interpretive orientation, but also exemplified a broader pattern within the Confucian tradition—one that consistently treated decisive phrases as central to understanding the Yijing.

Scholars particularly influenced by later figures such as Li Jingchi 李鏡池 (d. 1975) and Gao Heng 高亨 (d. 1986) of the Doubting Antiquity School—which emerged out of the New Culture Movement (mid-1910s to 1920s)—posited that the Yijing was originally composed of divinatory statements, proverbs, and vernacular idioms (Sivin 1966, pp. 290–98). They argued that the moralized interpretations attributed to Confucian scholars needed to be stripped away in order to rediscover the text’s original meaning or “to see the images of the text as the Zhou diviners saw them” (Shaughnessy 1995, p. 240). The discovery of silk manuscripts at Mawangdui offered crucial archaeological support for this view (Whincup 1986, pp. 18–19). In the Chinese context, this reinterpretation was closely tied to a broader Enlightenment-era rejection of Confucian orthodoxy, which had long been used by ruling elites to constrain thought and regulate behavior. In the Western context, it reflected the growing influence of “a more China-centered” historiographical approach (Cohen 1984, p. 6).

While an increasing number of scholars have emphasized the historical practice of divination in interpreting the function of decisive the phrases, others—such as Cheng Chung-Ying—have returned to the Confucian tradition, reorienting the discussion toward the cosmological and ontological dimensions of the Yijing (Cheng 2008). Joseph A. Adler further argues that divinatory practices guide individuals towards a unified understanding of the natural and moral order—both constitutive of the Dao 道—thus fostering wisdom (Adler 2022, p. 74). Joseph E. Brenner and Abir U. Igamberdiev argue that the text’s enduring relevance lies not merely in its embodiment of plural truths but in its persistent quest to reveal fundamental principles shared across human experiences of change, thereby encapsulating a holistic exploration of humanity and cosmic dynamism (Brenner and Igamberdiev 2021, p. 21). Despite these divergent approaches, the tension between divinatory foundations and Confucian moralization remains central to Yijing hermeneutics.

Faced with this longstanding tension, this paper centers on decisive phrases to delineate the theoretical–practical path of Yijing interpretation initiated by Confucian interpreters. First, by analyzing relevant passages in the Yijing, we clarify the critical role of decisive phrases in accessing the text’s divinatory meaning and its interpretative constraints. Second, through a historical analysis of Yijing divination as a response to existential uncertainty, this paper elucidates how its decisive phrases operate as ethical orientations rooted in the Confucian concept of virtue (De 德), guiding value-laden decisions in practice. Finally, through an analysis of decisive phrases of selected hexagram-line statements, we demonstrate how the Confucian hermeneutic approach transcends mere semantic analysis, moving from the seeking of divinatory meaning to the cultivation of virtue and virtuous action.

2. Understanding the Divinatory Meaning of the Yijing Through Decisive Phrases

Building upon the hermeneutic horizons established in previous scholarship, this study focuses on decisive phrases as the central element in the Yijing, aiming to elucidate their hermeneutic conditions for accessing the divinatory meaning of the text. What distinguishes the Yijing from conventional models of divination is its refusal to invoke the supernatural; instead, it “naturalistically recognizes and affirms the contingent and transient causal character of the world, revealing an immanent balance, harmony, and order within it” (Nelson 2011, p. 336). This is because it operates from the reader’s unique temporal and positional context and resonates with the ways in which human beings construct meaning, pursue benefit, and avoid harm, as a “logique vive” (living logic) (Leibniz 2006, p. 602). Recognizing the legitimacy of divinatory meaning is therefore a necessary precondition for understanding the Yijing, and decisive phrases serve as a crucial medium through which such meaning is grasped.

This interpretive function of decisive phrases is further reinforced in the hermeneutic tradition, where their foundational role is explicitly affirmed by the Treatise:

“It differentiates things and reveals their proper names, completing them with correct words and decisive phrases.”

(Treatise, Part B, Section 6; Zhu 2020, p. 294)

However, to grasp the significance of decisive phrases, the divinatory essence of the Yijing must be acknowledged. As the text states

“The Eight Trigrams determine the auspicious and ominous; the auspicious and ominous generate the Great Undertaking.”

(Treatise, Part A, Section 11; Zhu 2020, p. 282)

This passage underscores the nature of the Yijing: it functions not only as a compendium of divinatory judgments grounded in socio-historical contexts but also as a metaphysical framework for guiding action. The decisive phrases of the auspicious and ominous, like the divinatory events they codify, reflect not literal historical records but structured reflections on real-world experiences—what might be termed ritualized representations of past decision-making. However, unlike mere factual records, these judgments mediate between the tangible (shi 事, human affairs) and the transcendent (Dao 道), bridging human inquiry and cosmic order. This mediatory role arises from the fundamental structure of the Yijing, which operates at the intersection of the manifest world (xing er xia 形而下) and the underlying principles governing it (xing er shang 形而上). Just as human affairs unfold within historical and social realities, they also instantiate patterns that reflect the workings of the Dao. Thus, decisive phrases do not merely describe events; they reveal their deeper alignment—or misalignment—with the cosmic order.

The Treatise illuminates this mediatory role:

“The Sages established images to fully express their ideas […] appended remarks to fully express their words.”

(Treatise, Part A, Section 12; Zhu 2020, p. 283)

The Yijing’s objectivity, however, confronts an existential paradox: “Writing does not fully express speech; speech does not fully express ideas” (shu bu jin yan, yan bu jin yi 書不盡言，言不盡意) (Zhu 2020, p. 283). Resolving this paradox requires acknowledging the Sage as the hermeneutic guarantor. The Shuowen Jiezi 說文解字 (Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters) defines sheng 聖 (sagehood) as “penetrating insight” (tong 通), while the Mawangdui text “De sheng” 德聖 states

“Knowing the way of mankind is called ‘knowledge’; knowing the way of Heaven is called ‘sagacity’.”

(Cook 2012, p. 488)

Thus, the Sage serves as an ontological intermediary, translating cosmic patterns into humanly apprehensible symbols (xiang 象) and phrases (ci 辭). This process is neither deductive nor inductive but presupposes that the text of the Yijing, as contemplating images (guan xiang 觀象) and classification (lei wu 類物) by the Sage, encodes the Dao in an objective manner. Only with this assumption can interpreters avoid the pitfalls of relativism and engage the text as a coherent and intelligible whole.

Building upon this ontological grounding, decisive phrases emerge not merely as textual expressions, but as epistemic mediators that bridge the cosmic order encoded in the Yijing and our understanding. Having established the primacy of divinatory meaning in hermeneutic engagement, we must now confront its epistemological corollary: how the phrases of judgment, as linguistic artifacts forged in the historical divinatory praxis, attain intersubjective validity. The authors of the Treatise note

“There are Four Images in the Yi [Yijing], which is how it reveals itself.”

(Treatise, Part A, Section 11; Zhu 2020, p. 282)

Here, the term manifestation (shi 示) signifies a top-down revelation, where hexagram images (xiang 象) crystallize the “will of Heaven” (tian yi 天意) and the perceptible expressions of the Dao. Unlike textual phrases (ci 辭), which convey meaning through discursive language, images (xiang 象) in the Yijing operate as liminal symbols that bridge metaphysical principles and tangible forms. This distinction is further reinforced in the Treatise: “In speech we honor the phrases” (Zhu 2020, p. 278). This formulation positions the Yijing as a tripartite semiotic system:

(1)

Object-language (xiang 象) with hexagrams (composed of yin and yang lines) as direct expressions of cosmic patterns;

(2)

Natural language (ci 辭) with hexagram names (gua ming 卦名) and line statements (yaoci 爻辭) as discursive vehicles;

(3)

Syntactic language with the grammatical-logical rules governing interpretative praxis.

Interpreters engage with this system through natural language, following syntactic norms to decipher the cosmic semiosis embedded in the object-language. However, the original referents—whether historical events or the Dao itself—remain ontologically remote, divided by metaphysical distinctions (xing shang/xing xia 形上/形下) and historical discontinuities. Consequently, interpretation requires a hermeneutic leap, where linguistic signs function as bridges across temporal and epistemic gaps. As the Treatise asserts

“The Yi reveals the past and examines the future, makes clear the subtle and explains the mysterious. It differentiates things and reveals their proper names, completing them with correct words and decisive phrases.”

(Treatise, Part B, Section 6; Zhu 2020, p. 294)

The authors of the Yijing encoded objective truths within its linguistic structure, embedding phrases with determinate meanings that exist prior to interpretation. Whether contemplating judgment statements (tuanci 彖辭) or correlating images and phrases (guan xiang wan ci 觀象玩辭), interpreters must acknowledge the semantic stability of these phrases. To capriciously redefine them would sever access to the Dao, reducing interpretation to mere relativistic subjectivism.

Thus, like all structured languages, the linguistic system of the Yijing precedes interpretation. By aligning subjective understanding (zhi yi cang wang, 知以藏往, knowing the past) with objective divinatory praxis (zhan shi zhi lai, 占事知來, foreknowing the future), decisive phrases provide a foundation for its interpretation. As the Treatise emphasizes

“The most extreme of all profundities under Heaven are inherent in the hexagrams. The instigation of all activities under Heaven is inherent in the statements.”

(Treatise, Part A, Section 12; Zhu 2020, p. 284)

Through decisive phrases, interpretation transcends passive comprehension to an active, creative praxis that shapes both inner consciousness and external reality. The junzi 君子 (superior person), in engaging with this process, does not merely decode meaning but actively participates in its creation:

“This is why the superior person, when about to make something or do something, consults it in speech.”

(Treatise, Part A, Section 10; Zhu 2020, p. 278)

This dynamic interplay between linguistic objectivity and creative subjectivity does not simply encourage interpretation—it inevitably produces new understandings. The moment we grasp the meaning of the Yijing’s phrases, we have already shaped a new interpretation. Once expressed or enacted, this understanding moves beyond individual or situational contexts, evolving into a broader social and philosophical consensus.

3. Between Divinatory Meaning and Ethical Praxis

If the first step in understanding the Yijing lies in interrogating the original meaning of “knowing the way of mankind,” its ultimate concern extends to the ethical praxis of “knowing the way of Heaven.” The generative tension between the semantic determinacy of hexagram and line statements and the cultivation of moral virtue constitutes the core of the hermeneutic method pioneered by Confucian scholars. Crucially, this interpretive approach, as discussed earlier, is not a relativistic exercise that dissolves divinatory meaning; rather, it activates the contemporary significance of the Yijing text through returning to the original and innovating anew, centered on the decisive phrases.

This return to the original is not merely philological, but ontological—it requires reconciling the divinatory meaning of the text with the cosmological framework of the Dao. Any meaningful hermeneutic engagement with the Yijing must begin with a fundamental presupposition: the textual objectivity embedded within its decisive phrases extends beyond both authorial intent and historical contingency. This objectivity is not merely a recognition of the Sage who “provides teaching according to the spiritual Way” or the diviner who recorded prognostic events; rather, it constitutes the ontological foundation for all interpretive endeavors. Throughout history, whether scholars have approached the text through philology, cosmology, or moral philosophy, they have implicitly affirmed this presupposition by attempting to reconcile the divinatory empiricism (zhan yan shi li 占验事例) of the Yijing with the Dao.

The hermeneutic process reflects the structure of divination itself: a dialectic movement between questioning and resolution, in which decisive phrases operate both as prescriptive norms and generative frameworks. However, this process presents a paradox. Seeking divinatory meaning often appeals to mystical continuity across time—a notion that stands in tension with Confucius’s pragmatic rejection of “extraordinary things, feats of strength, disorder, and spiritual beings” (Analects, BK. VII, Chap. XX; Legge 1960a, p. 201). Resolving this tension requires recognizing that the authority of decisive phrases does not derive from historical fidelity but from their role in ethical praxis. As the Treatise states

“Therefore what is above form [xing er shang 形而上] is called the Way; what is within form [xing er xia 形而下] is called implements. Transforming and regulating is called fluctuation [bian 變]; extending and proceeding is called continuity [tong 通]; raising and placing things before all people under Heaven is called affairs and undertakings.”

(Treatise Part A, Section 12; Zhu 2020, p. 284)

Decisive phrases thus mediate between the Dao and human agency (qi 器), guiding interpreters not toward antiquarian knowledge but toward the cultivation of virtue and action. Their judgments of the auspicious and the ominous generate a dynamic feedback loop between epistemic recognition (zhi wei 知位), namely, assessing situational propriety (shi wei 時位); normative internalization (xiu li 修禮), namely, aligning conduct with ritual and moral norms (li 禮); and ethical actualization (cheng de 成德), which is transforming external rules into virtues (de 德).

This hermeneutic circle dissolves the subject–object dichotomy. The Dao is no longer an abstract, external principle but becomes immanent in de, which in turn manifests through acts of timely responsiveness (zhi ji 知幾). Consider the Lü Hexagram (lü gua 履卦): “Treading on a tiger’s tail” (履虎尾, Line 4) warns of positional misalignment (shi wei 失位), urging “fear and trepidation, but ultimately auspicious” (shuo shuo zhong ji 愬愬終吉; Zhu 2020, p. 101).

Later commentaries, such as Wang Bi’s 王弼 (d. 249), reinterpret this not as a literal danger but as cultivating prudential awareness (jie shen 戒慎), showing how decisive phrases evolve from prognostication to the cultivation of virtue. Thus, interpreting the Yijing through decisive phrases leads neither to historical positivism nor esotericism but to practical wisdom. As the Treatise concludes

“What is easy is easy to know; what is simple is easy to follow.”

(Treatise Part A, Section 1; Zhu 2020, p. 264)

By orienting interpretation toward the metaphysical as its ultimate goal, we are continually driven to address present needs. This process transforms experiential knowledge into a foundation for deliberate action, where a conscious sense of duty and an ongoing commitment to ethical engagement shape our intellectual pursuits. Interpretation is not merely an act of understanding but a way in which individuals shape themselves through engagement with the text. It encompasses both knowledge and the application of that knowledge in concrete situations, guiding actions within specific contexts and forming a framework for value-driven action.

Yet this interpretive act confronts a temporal tension: how can virtue, rooted in historical experience, remain operative in present ethical decisions without being reduced to a static object of the past? An inherent gap exists between experiential knowledge and contemporary decision-making. This epistemological gap inherently emerges when decisive phrases—whether as value orientations, foundational divinatory cases, or the Dao itself—become objective entities external to the interpreter. Despite classical scholars’ efforts to bridge this gap through linguistic analysis, the linear progression of historical interpretation prevents a return to the text’s original context. Interpretation, inevitably mediated by present linguistic predispositions, transforms the hermeneutic act into a dynamic reconstruction, rendering any direct correspondence with divinatory events or the Dao impossible to validate in the epistemological sense through decisive phrases.

“De is therefore rooted in emotions of our nature which would inspire and activate us to do what is necessary and should be done” (Cheng 2021). The opposition between auspiciousness and ominousness is phenomenologically immediate. The term ominousness shows that life is coming to an untimely and disastrous close (Legge 1865, p. 343), while auspiciousness signifies the opposite. These judgments, grounded in human evaluative praxis, guide conduct retroactively—as Zhang Zai 張載 (d. 1077) writes.

“The sages composed a book of laws and regulations for the people, so that the people would know what to move towards and what to avoid. This is the significance of the Changes.”

(Kasoff 1984, p. 116)

Zhang Zai, as another key figure in Neo-Confucianism, emphasized the text’s role in guiding both individual and collective behavior. His understanding of the Yijing, particularly of “changes” (yi 易), was that it offered a set of moral principles and prescriptive norms to guide the people. In his view, the sages, by codifying these norms, provided a means to direct people toward righteous actions and away from those that would lead them astray. The Yijing, in this context, becomes a tool for achieving a harmonious relationship between human agency and the cosmos, offering both ethical guidance and practical wisdom.

In the Yijing’s decisive phrases these moral orientations—knowing what to move towards and what to avoid—are objectified into prescriptive norms. These norms enact more than merely guiding actions; they imbue them with a sense of teleological purpose and moral obligation. In this framework, what is considered “transcendent” in the mind—embodied in the concept of de (virtue)—is not a purely metaphysical ideal but something deeply entwined with the human capacity for ethical decision-making and action.

Thus, the Yijing’s decisive phrases accomplish more than conveying cosmic patterns; they serve as practical guides for cultivating virtue and moral agency. Through their enactment, individuals align with both the moral order of the cosmos and the ethical imperatives of human society. In this way, Zhang Zai’s notion of the Yijing as a manual for moral conduct becomes directly tied to the phrases of judgment, which turn abstract principles into actionable knowledge for the cultivation of virtue and ethical behavior.

As Joseph R. Levenson observed, De was “power on the outside and virtue,” where “virtue” refers to an “inner nature” that ensures no harm comes to people’s lives (Levenson 1964, p. 13). However, in his translation, A. C. Graham rendered de as “potency,” describing it as a term “traditionally used for the power, whether benign or baleful, to move others without exerting physical force.” He further noted that Confucius employed de in reference to the charisma of the Zhou dynasty, which commanded universal allegiance, but later moralized and broadened the concept so that it came to signify “the capacity to act according to and bring others to the Way.” However, this interpretation introduces a contradiction: dao and de belong to the realm of transcendence, whereas Graham’s characterization of de as “whether benign or baleful” suggests a moral neutrality that seems inconsistent with its ethical and normative dimensions in Confucian thought (Graham 1989, p. 13).

Confucian de achieves cosmic–human continuity (tian ren he yi 天人合一) through the integration of affect and ritual (qing li ronghe 情禮融合). This synthesis is exemplified in the Analects:

“He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the starts turn towards it.”

(Analects, BK. II, Chapter I; Legge 1960a, p. 145)

The process of analyzing Chinese characters, particularly those composed of multiple components, often involves both phonetic and semantic decomposition. According to Qiu Xigui, de 德 stands in contrast to e 恶 (evil), as the right radical of de corresponds to e, while the left radical (彳) signifies walking or movement. This etymology suggests a fundamental moral principle: without deliberate action, the human mind risks falling into moral corruption.

Confucian scholars regarded De as originating from the natural order of heaven and earth, granting it a transcendent status. The sage, by observing both the heavens above and the earth below, attains de, embodying the ideal of “learning to be human” (xue er wei ren 學而為人) for the superior person. In the Yijing, the authors affirmed the connection between de and action: “Lü [Treading] is the basis of virtue.” This statement holds significance for two reasons. They further elaborated “Lü [Treading] is being harmonious and reaching one’s goal” and “Lü [Treading] harmonizes behavior” (Treatise, Part B, Section 7; Zhu 2020, pp. 295–96).

Etymologically, Lü originally referred to “shoes” but came to signify action—an action that is neither arbitrary nor aimless but instead purposeful and directed toward achieving harmony. To ensure this harmonious action, Zhu Xi, following Confucius, identified lü with li 禮 (ritual propriety), noting their phonetic similarity. This identification implies that virtuous action must be guided by ritual norms, and conversely, adherence to li cultivates both virtue and ethical action.

4. Understanding the Role of Decisive Phrases in the Yijing

The Yijing reveals a nuanced interplay between morality and action:

“Fluctuation and activity are expressed according to their appropriateness; the auspicious and ominous shift according to their conditions.”

(Treatise, Part B, Section 12; Zhu 2020, p. 300)

This passage encapsulates the central role of decisive phrases in the Yijing, demonstrating how they mediate between virtue as a moral orientation and action as a pragmatic response to change. The Yijing does not merely serve as a repository of divinatory records but functions as a dynamic framework for ethical cultivation. By aligning individual behavior with the changing circumstances of the world, the text fosters an ongoing interaction between moral character and practical action, shaping both inner virtue and outward conduct.

From an epistemological perspective, understanding the Yijing through its key phrases involves two intertwined processes. First, it requires engaging with the divinatory judgements as culturally embedded expressions of past experience-forms of symbolic knowledge that reflect both social memory and metaphysical orientation toward the Dao. Second, it involves the internalizing of the value system, which subtly shapes one’s spiritual cultivation and decision-making in the external world. This interplay between virtue and action in the Yijing illustrates how recognizing the Dao can serve as a foundation for concrete judgements and self-cultivation in daily life.

This convergence of metaphysical insight and moral agency inevitably raises the central concern of the Yijing: how can human action align with the flux of change without losing ethical orientation? The question of how to act in a changing world has been central to human inquiry since the dawn of civilization. As its translation—The Book of Changes—suggests, the Yijing is fundamentally concerned with the principles of transformation and adaptability. Through its divinatory judgments, the text offers a method for recognizing the fluid nature of reality and guiding action accordingly. The Treatise (Part B, Section 8) states that, since the world is changing, we must “change along with circumstances” (wei bian suo shi 唯變所適; Zhu 2020, p. 296), emphasizing the necessity of responsiveness in decision-making. Decisive phrases provide concrete guidance for action. The Treatise instructs

“For this reason the superior person at rest contemplates the images and enjoys the remarks; in activity he contemplates the fluctuations and enjoys the prognostications.”

(Treatise, Part A, Section 2; Zhu 2020, p. 266)

This passage underscores the Yijing’s dual function: as a contemplative text that refines perception and as a practical guide that informs action. Decisive phrases assess situations in terms of auspiciousness and ominousness, anticipating whether a course of action will align with the unfolding dynamics of the world. The oracular text of the Jiji 既濟 (Already Complete) hexagram is an example:

“Success is small; appropriate and correct. Auspicious at the beginning, chaotic at the end.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 254)

While initial success may be deemed auspicious, the world remains in a state of constant flux. Stagnation after achieving a temporary victory leads to decline or chaos (luan 乱). This echoes the Tai 泰 (Penetrating) hexagram, which warns

“There is no plain without a slope, no departing without returning.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 104)

Such passages reinforce a fundamental principle of the Yijing: change is the essence of reality. To act wisely, one must anticipate and adapt to these inevitable fluctuations rather than assume stability or permanence.

However, obstacles and unforeseen circumstances often disrupt human plans. The Ding 鼎 (Cauldron) hexagram, particularly its third line, illustrates this predicament:

“The cauldron’s ears have fallen off: its use is blocked. The fat of the pheasant is not eaten.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 219)

Here, an external impediment renders an endeavor futile. Yet, the text suggests that renewal remains possible: by destroying the old and establishing the new, setbacks can ultimately give way to success. The Commentary on Assorted Hexagrams (Zagua zhuan 雜卦傳) articulates this dynamic explicitly:

“Ge [49, Overturning] banishes the old; Ding [50, Cauldron] accepts the new.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 315)

This observation reinforces an essential ethical injunction of the Yijing: when change is recognized, one must act immediately to respond to it. Hesitation or delay may lead to stagnation, whereas timely action aligns with the Dao and ensures auspicious outcomes.

The Yijing’s decisive phrases thus function as more than mere prognostications; they establish a framework through which virtue (de) and action interact dynamically. By training individuals to recognize patterns of change and respond appropriately, the text fosters a moral–ritual practice that is both pragmatic and ethically transformative. Rather than being confined to historical divination, the Yijing serves as an enduring guide for human action, ensuring that each decision is attuned to both cosmic patterns and ethical imperatives.

This dynamic ethical framework is concretely embodied in the judgment phrases of the Bi 比 (Being Close) hexagram. The text states

“Auspicious. Tracing to the source and divining is fundamental, enduring, and correct: no blame. Coming while there is no peace: [coming] late is ominous.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 92)

This passage illustrates a key principle in the Yijing: even when an initial prognosis is auspicious, failure to act in a timely manner can lead to ominous consequences. The text warns against hesitation or delay, suggesting that opportunities are perishable. This principle finds further resonance in the Shijing 詩經 (Book of Songs), which is not merely a foundational work of classical Chinese literature, but one of the Five Confucian Classics. There, tardiness—being “slow,” “arriving late,” or failing to “come to court”—is consistently portrayed as detrimental, especially in contexts of political and moral obligation. This aligns with the teaching in the Commentary on the Words of the Text (Wenyan zhuan 文言傳) for the Qian 乾 hexagram, which emphasizes the importance of “acting together in a timely way” (yu shi xie xing 與時偕行; Zhu 2020, p. 64).

This emphasis on timeliness naturally extends into the Yijing’s broader ethical cosmology, where both time (shi 时) and position (wei 位) function as integral coordinates for right action. While the Yijing underscores time as a crucial factor in guiding human actions, it simultaneously highlights position as another fundamental principle. In the cosmological and ethical framework of the text, individuals must act according to their rightful position, as actions that disregard one’s proper place often result in disorder and misfortune.

The importance of maintaining one’s proper position is evident in the hexagram Daguo 大过 (Surpassing by the Great), specifically the [line 4] nine in the fourth:

“The ridgepole is held up: auspicious. Having another is a disgrace.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 155)

This passage suggests that maintaining balance and stability within one’s designated role leads to favorable outcomes, whereas overstepping or assuming responsibilities beyond one’s rightful position brings disgrace. The metaphor of the ridgepole—a central structural component of a building—symbolizes the necessity of fulfilling one’s function without overburdening or disrupting the equilibrium of the whole system. Similarly, in the hexagram Song 讼 (Disputing), the text cautions against disputes arising from actions that exceed one’s proper bounds:

“With honesty obstructed, cautiously holding to the center is auspicious; going to the end is ominous.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 86)

Here, the emphasis is on moderation and adherence to the middle path, avoiding extremes that could lead to conflict. Zhu Xi, in his commentary on the Song hexagram, explicates its structure:

“Song is disputing (zhengbian 爭辯). Qian above and Kan below; Qian is firm and Kan is danger. The firm above controls what is below; the one in danger below keeps an eye on the one above.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 86)

This structural analysis reveals an inherent tension: Qian 乾 (Heaven) represents firmness and authority, while Kan 坎 (Water) signifies danger and instability. The opposition between these two trigrams reflects the dynamics of contention—when authority asserts control without responsiveness, and when subordinates react with resistance.

A particularly illustrative case appears in line 5 of the Song hexagram, which occupies a central and correct position (zhongzheng 中正), signifying legitimate authority. However, despite its rightful status, this position is precarious due to the presence of disputes and challenges. In contrast with the Western tradition, where litigation and debate are often seen as pathways to truth and consensus, in Chinese thought disputes frequently arise when individuals seek to extend their influence beyond their legitimate domain, thereby disrupting harmony. Overreach not only leads to contention but also elicits strong emotional reactions—such as joy or anger—which further intensify conflicts and obscure rational decision-making.

Thus, to prevent discord, individuals must recognize and adhere to their proper positions. By fulfilling one’s responsibilities within one’s designated role and refraining from encroachment, one can not only avoid unnecessary conflicts but also cultivate an enduring state of auspiciousness. This principle aligns with Confucian ethics, where social harmony and balance are achieved through self-restraint, the observance of one’s duties, and the maintenance of hierarchical order.

Yet this Confucian emphasis on fulfilling one’s role does not imply rigidity; within the Yijing’s cosmology, positions are inherently dynamic, requiring constant adaptation to changing circumstances. While the Yijing insists on the necessity of respecting one’s position, it simultaneously acknowledges that positions themselves are not static. As the world undergoes constant transformation, so too do individual roles and responsibilities. Ethical action, therefore, must be both appropriate in position and proper in time.

This principle is explicitly articulated in the [line 5] nine in the fifth, Zhun 屯 (Difficult Beginning):

“Difficulty in blessings. Correctness in minor [affairs] is auspicious; correctness in major [affairs] is ominous.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 78)

Here, the suitability of an action is contingent upon context. The accumulation or storage of resources—whether material or symbolic—yields different results depending on whether it pertains to minor or major affairs. In minor affairs (such as daily necessities), prudent storage ensures the efficient use of resources, leading to auspicious outcomes. In major affairs (such as warfare or state rituals), excessive hoarding without proper utilization can lead to societal disorder or even national decline.

This passage highlights the situational nature of ethical decision-making in the Yijing: rigid adherence to a principle, without considering changing circumstances, may lead to failure. Thus, when interpreting the concept of position in the Yijing, the focus should not be solely on determining one’s fixed place within a structure or analyzing the static meaning of position in hexagrams and lines. Instead, the fundamental lesson lies in adapting to change while remaining attuned to one’s appropriate role in each moment. Ethical wisdom consists not in absolute adherence to fixed positions but in recognizing when to act, when to yield, and how to navigate shifting circumstances with balance and discernment.

The Yijing presents a sophisticated ethical system in which time and position function as complementary principles guiding human action. While timely responsiveness ensures that opportunities are seized before they dissipate, maintaining one’s rightful position prevents disorder and conflict. At the same time, the text acknowledges that positions are not static but fluid, requiring individuals to adapt their behavior according to shifting circumstances.

The decisive phrases in the Yijing guide individuals to adjust their actions in accordance with changes in time and position. However, this adaptation is not arbitrary but directional—a concept expressed as de (virtue). De represents the dynamic interaction between moral cultivation and action, ensuring that human development aligns with a higher cosmic order. This principle is explicitly stated in the Wenyan Zhuan 文言传 commentary on Qian 乾 (Heaven/The Creative Power):

“The superior person advances in virtue while carrying on his undertakings.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 61)

This passage underscores the necessity of integrating moral self-cultivation with effective action. Success is not merely the result of strategic maneuvering but requires progress in both virtue and action. That is to say, to avoid failure and achieve success, one must ensure that moral refinement advances in tandem with one’s external endeavors. This principle is further illustrated in the [line 4] nine in the fourth, Lü 履 (Treading):

“Treading on the tiger’s tail: fear and trepidation, but ultimately auspicious.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 101)

Here, cautious action—rooted in an awareness of risk and reverence—leads to a positive outcome. Confucius elaborates on this ethical posture in the Analects:

“There are three things of which the superior man stands in awe. He stands in awe of the ordinances of Heaven. He stands in awe of great men. He stands in awe of the words of sages.”

(Legge 1960a, p. 313)

This inner sense of reverence and careful self-regulation ensures that one can navigate even perilous situations—such as metaphorically stepping on a tiger’s tail—without calamity. Similarly, in the [line 6] six at the top, Xu 需 (Waiting), the text states

“Going into a hole, three uninvited guests have come. Respect them, and the end will be auspicious.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 85)

This passage highlights the importance of maintaining respect in social interactions, even when faced with unfamiliar or hostile circumstances. By treating others with dignity and tolerance—even enduring insults if necessary—one fosters unity and cooperation, ultimately leading to favorable outcomes. Conversely, Zhu Xi, in his commentary on the [line 6] six at the top, Guai 夬 (Resolving), writes

“The yielding yin line is the inferior person at the time of complete exhaustion, his colleagues already finished, nothing to cry out about. The end must be ominous.”

(Zhu 2020, p. 199)

This suggests that failure to cultivate moral resonance with others results in alienation, conflict, and ultimate failure. Social cohesion is not merely a matter of strategic alliances but must be rooted in genuine respect and shared moral principles.

While the Yijing acknowledges that moral cultivation and action must advance together, it ultimately positions virtue as the determining factor in success. Fundamentally, the text instructs individuals on how to behave, reinforcing a central tenet of Chinese ethical thought. This notion finds profound resonance in The Great Learning (Daxue 大学), a text later regarded as a foundational guide for self-cultivation and governance:

“The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the kingdom, first ordered well their own States. Wishing to order well their States, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts.”

(Legge 1960a, p. 357)

This passage establishes virtue as the foundation of both personal development and sociopolitical order. Governance, family harmony, and even statecraft all depend on inner moral cultivation—a view deeply embedded in the ethical framework of the Yijing. The text further asserts that virtue originates from Heaven and Earth:

“The great person’s virtue matches that of Heaven and Earth; his clarity/brightness (ming 明) matches that of the sun and moon; his sense of sequence matches that of the four seasons; his sensitivity to the auspicious and ominous matches that of ghosts and spirits. When he precedes Heaven, Heaven does not oppose him; when he follows Heaven, he respects Heaven’s timing.”

(Wenyan Zhuan, [29] [9 in the fifth]; Zhu 2020, p. 66)

Here, virtue is depicted as a cosmic principle, aligning human actions with the natural rhythms of the universe. The Yijing thus does not present virtue as a human invention but as an intrinsic structure of reality, guiding ethical action. This understanding extends to the interpretation of specific hexagrams, each illustrating an aspect of virtue: Lü 履 (Treading): the basis of virtue; Qian 謙 (Being Modest): the handle of virtue; Fu 复 (Returning): the root of virtue; Heng 恆 (Everlasting): the strength of virtue; Sun 損 (Diminishing): the cultivation of virtue; Yi 益 (Enhancing): the abundance of virtue; Kun 困 (Blocked): the discernment of virtue; Jing 井 (The Well): the ground of virtue; and Sun 巽 (Entering): the controller of virtue (See Treatise, Part B, Section 7; Zhu 2020, p. 295). In this framework, virtue is instilled through reason and habitual training, shaping the individual from external principles. In contrast, the Yijing holds that virtue originates from Heaven and Earth, guiding human action as an inherent cosmic order rather than an imposed rational construct. Mencius extends this view, arguing that human nature inherently inclines toward goodness:

“The tendency of man’s nature to good is like the tendency of water to flow downwards.”

(Legge 1960b, pp. 395–96)

According to this perspective, virtue is not something artificially acquired but an innate force within human beings, which unfolds naturally when one aligns with the Dao. The Yijing further suggests that virtue is not merely a passive quality but an active force that enables individuals to succeed even in difficult situations. This is particularly evident in the Lin 吝 (Disgrace) judgement, where moral advancement allows individuals to ultimately turn failure into success. Lin implies an initial state of hesitation, constraint, or moral testing. However, when one responds to this adversity with integrity and self-cultivation, the very condition of “disgrace” becomes a catalyst for growth and eventual transformation.

This transformative understanding of virtue finds further articulation in the interpretive structure of the Yijing itself, particularly through the function of decisive phrases, which serve as the hermeneutic hinge between moral insight and practical action. Rather than merely predicting outcomes, these phrases interpret specific human situations in light of the Dao, drawing on metaphysical patterns to guide ethical reflection and action. In this way, they transform symbolic meaning into moral orientation, enabling the reader to progress from divination to self-cultivation and timely action.

An interpretation of the Yijing centered on decisive phrases thus illuminates the hermeneutic methodology of the Confucian tradition, in which understanding is inseparable from the cultivation of virtue and the enactment of appropriate action. This approach transforms external norms into internal virtues through the dynamic interaction of hexagram-line prognostication (liu yao ji xiong 六爻吉凶). Within this interpretative framework, De (virtue) functions as a cognitive capacity to discern situational propriety, while action operationalizes this capacity in real-world contexts. This interactive mechanism dissolves the subject–object dichotomy, extending the meaning of the Yijing from mere textual exegesis to a living practice of moral cultivation. By grounding ethical pedagogy in a universally inclusive theoretical paradigm, the Yijing provides not only a method for interpreting change and action but also a foundational model for integrating virtue with lived experience.

5. Conclusions

Through an analysis of the Yijing’s decisive phrases, this paper attempts to offer an overview of the intellectual evolution of the Confucian hermeneutic approach—from an initial exploration of divinatory meaning to an emphasis on the cultivation of virtue and action. This progression not only deepens our understanding of Confucian exegesis but also provides a new perspective for advancing textual-interpretation theory. As a crucial component of the Yijing’s core semantic system, decisive phrases of the auspicious and the ominous function beyond mere semantic evaluations. They construct a value-oriented framework, in which predictive outcomes serve not only to guide practical decision-making but, more fundamentally, to shape individual virtue cultivation.

Thus, an understanding of the Yijing should not be confined solely to textual philology. Rather, it must also consider how its semantic system actively shapes both moral character and practical action. This interpretative shift reflects the intrinsic theoretical logic of the Yijing within the Chinese tradition, as well as the foundational principle of the unity of knowledge and action (zhi xing he yi 知行合一) in ancient Chinese thought. In a broader academic context, the Confucian interpretative methodology offers critical insights for contemporary textual interpretation theory. It challenges the conventional view of texts as static repositories of knowledge, instead positioning them as dynamic sources of ethical guidance and transformation in action. Future research could further explore the applicability of this interpretative model to other classical texts, as well as its potential contributions to contemporary ethics and practical philosophy.