“Lamp and Candle”: Classical Chinese Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Why is the “lamp and candle” so prominent in Taixu’s poetry?
- What symbolic meaning does this imagery hold as a Buddhist metaphor?
- Which personal sentiments are expressed through Taixu’s use of this imagery?
- How does this imagery serve as a conduit for transmitting Taixu’s personal emotions and spiritual experiences?
- It presents an uncharted examination of Taixu’s accomplishments as a poet-monk, serving as a complementary study to his multifaceted and intricate identities.
- It illuminates Taixu’s extensive collection of poetry, which has received scant attention from both Buddhist and literary scholars.
- It innovatively analyses the metaphorical image of the “lamp and candle”, which held profound influence over Taixu’s life and monastic vocation, yet has remained largely overlooked in the comprehensive inquiries into various facets of his life.
2. The Significance of “Lamp and Candle” Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry
我最早的意識和想像,是庵內觀音龕前的琉璃燈;有一次看著外婆把燈放下來,添了油,燃了火,又扯上去,注視得非常明晰深刻。同時,並想像屋樑下懸有一個什麼靈活的東西在牽動著,而各種知識記憶乃從此萌芽了。My earliest consciousness and imagination revolved around the glass lamp that stood before the Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara) altar in the nunnery. On one occasion, I watched as my grandmother placed the lamp down, replenished its oil, kindled the flame, and raised it once more, observing the entire process with remarkable clarity and profundity. Concurrently, I imagined an agile presence suspended from the roof beam, a moment from which various memories and knowledge sprouted forth.10
高處巋然古教堂,紛陳像設燭騰光。
High above, the ancient church majestically stood, Statues and candles arranged, a dazzling flood.13
驚起鴛鴦眠不定,粲然微笑電燈前。
Stirred awake like the restless mandarin ducks, [I] sparkle with a smile before the electric lamp.16
雲樹風帆明遠近,電燈高照大江南。
Clouds, trees, wind, sails, far and near, Electric light high shines, over the great river south.18
香火一爐燈一盞,白頭夜禮佛名經。
A furnace of incense and a lamp in sight, At night with white hair, [I] pay my respects and recite.22
3. The Mind Lamp: A Buddhist Metaphor
吾人既稱佛子,不可不於佛法中自覓安心立命之地,以紹佛之心燈於不絕。
As practitioners of Buddhism, it is essential [for us] to seek within the teachings of Buddhism a place of inner peace and existential grounding, so that [we may] perpetuate the illuminating light of the Buddha’s mind lamp.25
燈比佛果上之恩德,以燈能破闇,而佛之大悲,亦能破除眾生癡闇。
蓋漫漫生死長夜,佛為明燈;今既不信佛燈,是即失大利樂,如“盲人騎瞎馬,半夜臨深流”。
In the vast cycle of birth and death, which resembles a long night, the Buddha serves as an illuminating lamp. Those who fail to place their trust in the Buddha’s lamp relinquish immense benefits and joy, akin to a “blind person riding a blind horse, approaching a deep stream in the middle of the night.”28
剔燈曾共展奇文,今日重來倍憶君。
We once shared the brilliance under the lamp’s glow, Today, revisiting, memories of you (Huoxuan) multiply and grow.29
主人寒夜來生客,一剔心燈耀古今。
On a wintry night, the host welcomes the guest, A flicker of the mind lamp illuminates the past and present.32
所謂一室千燈,光光互遍,相涉無礙,不壞自相。
The so-called one room, thousand lamps scenario, where many lights permeate, intersect without hindrance, and do not diminish one another.33
修行證果,弘法利世,焰續佛燈明。
Engaging in spiritual practice to attain realization, Promoting the Dharma for the welfare of the world, The flame perpetuates the radiance of the Buddha’s lamp.34
May these written poems embody the conditioned phenomena, Transmitting as an infinite and radiant lamp!38
新參僧教育,無盡佛明燈。
Through the education of novice monks, The infinite light of the Buddha shines endlessly.39
4. Taixu’s Personal Emotions in “Lamp and Candle” Imagery
燈花爆而百事喜。
When the flame of a lamp wick suddenly bursts forth, it signifies joyousness in every aspect.42
晚來偕向市場遊,燈火星羅車水流。
In the evening, [we] venture together to the bustling market, Where lanterns shimmer and carriages flow like a river.44
夜從書城搜蠹殘,花海燈市才一瞥。
In the evening, [I] search for remnants of decay in the city of books, But caught only a fleeting glimpse of the sea of flowers and the bustling lamplit market.47
剪燈同夜話,高躡待明朝。
Engaging in late-night conversations under the dimly lit lamp, [We] ascend to higher grounds, awaiting the arrival of dawn.48
清談娓娓消初夜,喜有明燈耀案頭。
Engaging in a lively conversation, the first night dissipates gracefully, Delighted to have a bright lamp illuminating the desk.49
上界繁星隔岸燈,湖天一碧萬光騰。
Across the celestial realm, stars twinkle, while lamps illuminate the distant shores, The lake and sky merge as one, a boundless expanse gleaming with myriad lights.50
雲中金粟52影,燈下草蟲啼。
In the realm of clouds, Buddha’s radiance shines, Underneath the lamp’s glow, insects’ songs chime.53
獨坐寒宵盡,寒宵忽已深,一燈冷相對,惆悵去來今。
Sitting alone, the cold night wanes, In the sudden depth of the chilling hours. One lamp, cold and solitary, faces me, Regret and melancholy, the passage of time.54
朱顏隨歲改,華髮映燈寒。
The rosy complexion changes with the passing years, The gray hair reflects the coldness of the lamp’s glow.55
等閒又度中秋節,58風雨孤燈思悄然!
Once again waiting idly for the Mid-Autumn Festival to arrive, With wind and rain, the solitary lamp quietly ponders.59
寒窗深坐一燈昏,苦憶軒昂磊落人。
In the depths of the cold study, sitting alone in the dim lamplight, Bitter memories flood my mind of that remarkable and upright individual.60
薄寒憶歸去,燈火見前村。
In the slight chill, memories of the journey home arise, The lamplight reveals the village ahead.62
5. Three Imagery Groups in Taixu’s Poetry
5.1. Night, Fire, Boat, and Lamp (Ye Huo Chuan Deng 夜火船燈)
起看繁霜白蓬背,冷冷水逼一燈寒。[I] rise and see the boat’s awning covered in frost, The chilling water presses, one lamp in solitude.64
燈影秋江寺,篷聲夜雨船。In the temple by the autumnal river, lantern shadows flicker, Amidst the night rain, the sound of awnings echoes on the boat.66
海燈搖出西風意,漁火遠明微雪村。The sea lantern sways, evoking the essence of the west wind, Distant fishing fires faintly illuminate the snowy village.68
5.2. Forest, Moon, Mountain, and Lamp (Lin Yue Shan Deng 林月山燈)
茂林深谷萬燈明,謖謖松濤月下鳴。
師親指歸路,月掛一輪燈。Under the guidance of the master, [I] am directed towards the homeward path, Where the moon hangs in the sky, resembling a radiant lamp.72
天真爛漫聽童歌,人影燈光林外過。With innocent delight, I listen to the children’s songs, As shadows of people pass beyond the light in the woods.74
5.3. Falling Leaves and Autumn Lamps (Luoye Qiudeng 落葉秋燈)
雨中黃葉樹,燈下白頭人。Amidst the rain, yellow leaves adorn the trees, Like the fate of this white-haired figure beneath the lamp’s glow.78紅燈迥夕照,黃葉落空庭。The red lantern casts a distant glow in the evening, While yellow leaves fall in the empty courtyard.79
樹樹明燈呈幻境,窗窗涼雨寫秋痕。The trees, each adorned with radiant lamps, present a surreal scene, While the windows, adorned with cool rain, inscribe traces of autumn.85
6. “Lamp and Candle”: A Symbol of Taixu’s Inner Spirit
燈燈相續光無盡,塞地充天氣浩然。The continuous glow of each lamp is boundless, Filling the earth, engulfing the vast sky.86
明無不見,照察纖微。以夜繼晝,烈者所依。With brilliance that reveals all, [the lamp] illuminates even the tiniest details, Continuing day into night, it is the reliability of the resolute souls.91燭之自焚以致用,亦有殺身以成仁。The candle burns itself to serve its purpose, Sacrificing its own life to achieve benevolence.92
千年長暗室,照破一燈寒。In a dimly lit room, shrouded in darkness for a thousand years, One solitary lamp casts its feeble glow, piercing through the chill.93
心海騰宿浪,風雨逼孤燈。The vast sea of the heart surges with restless waves, As winds and rains threaten the solitary lamp.95
譬如然燈,膏油既盡,不久將滅。老亦如是,壯膏既盡,不久將死。Metaphorically speaking, just like a lamp, once its oil is exhausted, will soon extinguish, so is the nature of aging. When one’s vitality and vigor are depleted, death will not be far behind.99
風燭無常願無盡,海天雲水正茫茫。The fleeting nature of the wind candle embodies boundless aspirations, The vastness of the sea, sky, clouds, and water appears infinite and profound.101
現在,風燭殘命的我,仍風中燭似的殘存著。In the present moment, I, like a wind-blown candle, continue to exist with a flickering flame.103
仰止唯佛陀,完就在人格。In profound meditation, the sole pursuit is the Buddha, Complete fulfillment resides within the virtuous nature of humanity.104
7. Conclusions
Funding
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Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
TDQ | (Shi 2005) |
TDN | (Shi 2011) |
1 | The Buddhist reform movement was a collaborative effort involving various groups, including reformists such as Kang Youwei 康有為 (1859–1927), Liang Qichao 梁啟超 (1873–1929), Tan Sitong 譚嗣同 (1865–1898), and Zhang Taiyan 章太炎 (1869–1936), lay Buddhists like Yang Renshan 楊仁山 (1837–1911) and Ouyang Jian 歐陽漸 (1871–1943), and Buddhist monks such as Jing’an 敬安 (1851–1912), Taixu 太虛, Xuyun 虛雲 (1840–1959), and Su Manshu 蘇曼殊 (1884–1918). For more information related to Chinese modern Buddhist reform movements, refer to the following three books: Tarocco (2005); Jessup and Kiely (2016); Campo and Bianchi (2023). |
2 | According to Taixu: “In the realm of Chinese poetry, the Tang Dynasty reigns supreme” 中國詩以唐為盛 (TDQ, vol. XXXII, p. 414). |
3 | The TDQ contains approximately 500 poems by Taixu’s mentors, companions, disciples, and students. All of these works are intimately connected with Taixu himself, encompassing verses presented to him as well as collaborative compositions. For further details, (see TDQ, vol. XXXIV, pp. 290–444). |
4 | Meian shilu soon gained many readers. Their support is reflected in the prefaces of the TDQ, which were composed by several of Taixu’s fellow poets and friends (TDQ, vol. XXXII, p. 510). |
5 | Yinshun was a renowned Buddhist philosopher who joined Taixu in the modern Buddhist revival movement in 1930. Throughout the rest of his life, he dedicated himself to promoting “humanistic Buddhism” (renjain fojiao 人間佛教), which encompassed many of the concepts and principles advocated by Taixu. For more in-depth study of Yinshun (see Bingenheimer 2009; Lee 2021). |
6 | There are several important works dedicated to the study of Taixu. Welch (1968) devotes a chapter to Taixu, presenting him as a disingenuous self-promoter. Jiang (1993) provides a balanced perspective on the first half of Taixu’s life. Hong (1999) takes a thematic approach to examining Taixu’s activities and contributions. Pittman (2001) is considered a significant work, delving into Taixu’s efforts to make Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism relevant to the modern world. Goodell (2008) sheds light on Taixu’s seminal period of life and thoughts. Ritzinger (2017) focuses on Taixu’s Buddhist radicalism. Jones (2021) regards Taixu as a transitional figure in the establishment of a “Pure Land in the Human Realm” (renjian jingtu 人間淨土). |
7 | For the study of “lamp and candle” imagery in classical Chinese poetry, there are two notable works. Tian (2005) offers a Buddhist perspective to study Liang (502–557) poetry through the lens of this imagery. Fu (2007), in the chapter titled “Zhuguang dengying li de zhongguo shi” 燭光燈影裏的中國詩 (Chinese Poetry in the Glow of Candlelight and Lamplight), pp. 231–61, provides a comprehensive examination of the literary and religious significance of this imagery in Tang poetry. |
8 | In modern China, many monks have shown a preference for incorporating “lamp and candle” imagery into their poetry. For instance, Xuyun, in his poem Zai Jilongpo Lingshan si Yang Shaohong laifang buyu在吉隆玻靈山寺楊少洪來訪不遇 (Yang Shaohong’s Unmet Visit to Lingshan Temple in Kuala Lumpur), poetically employs the lamp as a symbol of hope for a new day: “Under the lamp, I read repeatedly through the night/Unknowingly, the eastern window gradually reveals a tinge of red” 夜來燈下頻頻讀,不覺東窗漸透紅. Jing’an, in his poem Zixiao shi 自笑詩 (Self-Mockery of Poetry), utilizes the imagery to depict his self-sacrifice for Buddhism: “Sacrificing flesh, lighting the lamp for the Buddha’s service / Realizing that the body is but a bubble in water” 割肉燃燈供佛勞,了知身是水中泡. Also Hongyi 弘一 (1880–1942), in his poem Xijiang yue Su Tanggu lüguan 西江月 宿塘沽旅館 (The Moon over West River), employs the lamp to convey his sense of solitude in the night: “The remaining trickle startles within a dream/A solitary lamp and the scenery form a pair” 殘漏驚人夢裏,孤燈對景成雙. Su Manshu, in his poem Dongju 東居 (Eastern Abode), sensitively captures the ambiance through descriptions of the lamp in autumn: “The lamp floats amidst beaded curtains, the jade zither resonates in the autumn/Several melodies echo at the waterside pavilion” 燈飄珠箔玉箏秋,幾曲回闌水上樓. |
9 | According to Taixu, the Dayin Nunnery was situated approximately three miles from Chang’an 長安, Taixu’s birthplace (TDQ, vol. XXXI, p. 155). |
10 | Taixu, “Shengzhang Zai Nong Gong Dao Shang Du De Xiangzhen” 生長在農工到商讀的鄉鎮 (Growing up in a Town: From Farming and Laboring to Commerce and Education), in Taixu zizhuan 太虛自傳 (Taixu’s Autobiography) (TDQ, vol. XXXI, p. 156). |
11 | The Sacred Heart Basilica (Basilique du Sacré-Cœur) is one of Paris’s most prominent landmarks. |
12 | In 1925, Taixu decided to travel to Europe as a Buddhist missionary. He and his companions began their journey on 11 August 1928, and arrived in Paris on September 16. He remained in the city for more than a month, during which time he delivered lectures to various political and academic associations (See TDQ, vol. XXXI, pp. 326–27, 334–42). |
13 | Taixu. Bali jiyou 巴黎紀遊 (Travelogue of Paris) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, pp. 135–37). |
14 | The Forbidden City served as the imperial residence for twenty-four emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties, and it is considered to be the largest and most complete architectural complex of its kind still in existence. |
15 | The Putuo Mountain, in the Zhoushan 舟山 Archipelago, Zhejiang Province 浙江省, is a renowned center of Buddhist pilgrimage and worship. |
16 | Taixu. You Shanghai di Mensi manyin 由上海抵門司漫吟 (A Rambling Poem from Shanghai to Moji Ward) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 75). Moji is a ward of the city of Kitakyushu in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. |
17 | Yingjiang Temple in Anqing, Anhui Province 安徽省, was established in 1619. The Zhenfeng Pagoda, a seven-story tower within the temple, was previously known as the “Tower of Ten Thousand Buddhas” (Wanfo ta 萬佛塔). |
18 | Taixu. Yingjiang si Zhenfeng ta 迎江寺振風塔 (The Zhenfeng Pagoda of Yingjiang Temple) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 103). |
19 | A mengguan (“hall for untaught children”) was essentially a primary school that taught boys how to read and write in preparation for imperial examinations (See Brokaw 2020). |
20 | The Quan Tangshi anthology was completed in 1706. It includes 49,403 poems written by 2873 poets during the Tang Dynasty. |
21 | The poems of Bai Juyi (also known by his courtesy name Letian 樂天) are renowned for their accessibility and clarity. |
22 | Bai Juyi. Xizeng lijing laoseng 戲贈禮經老僧 (A Playful Tribute to the Elderly Monk who Meditates and Recites Scripture) (Xie 2006, p. 2646). |
23 | In Buddhist philosophy, the mind lamp concept symbolizes the attainment of mental clarity and illumination that arises from a state of stillness and tranquility (See Ding 2012, p. 710). |
24 | The association in question was the Buddhist Alliance for Preservation (Weichi Fojiao Tongmenghui 維持佛教同盟會), which Taixu hoped to establish in March 1913. However, he abandoned the idea following discussions with friends, who perceived it as no different from any number of existing organizations (See TDN, p. 39). |
25 | Taixu. Weichi Fojiao Tongmenghui xuanyan 維持佛教同盟會宣言 (Declaration of the Buddhist Alliance for Preservation) (TDQ, vol. XXXIII, p. 6). |
26 | In Taixu’s perspective, the sun, the moon, and the lamp serve as three illuminating symbols, reflecting the profound wisdom and luminosity of the Buddha’s tathāgatagarbha (rulai zangxin 如來藏心). These illuminants are metaphorically associated with the Buddha’s radiant fruition: the sun symbolizes the merit of the Buddha’s wisdom (zhide 智德), the moon represents the merit of severing afflictions (duande 斷德), and the lamp embodies the merit of the Buddha’s compassion (ende 恩德) (See TDQ, vol. XI, p. 78). |
27 | Taixu. Fahua jiangyan lu 法華講演錄 (Recorded Lectures on the Lotus Sūtra) (TDQ, vol. XI, p. 78). |
28 | Taixu. Yaoshi liuli guang rulai benyuan gongde jing jiangji 藥師琉璃光如來本願功德經講記 (Annotated Lectures on the Original Vows of the Medicine-Master Tathāgata of Lapis Light) (TDQ, vol. XV, p. 387). |
29 | Taixu. He Zhan’an guo Hanyang Guiyun Si diaoyun yan和湛庵過漢陽歸元寺吊雲岩 (A Poetic Tribute to Zhan’an at Guiyuan Temple in Hanyang, When Observing the Diaoyun Yan) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 63). |
30 | Huoxuan, also known as Zhan’an 湛庵, is a poet-monk who shares a profound friendship with Taixu, forged through their mutual appreciation of each other’s poetry (TDQ, vol. XXXI, p. 184). His poetic exchanges with Taixu are preserved in the latter’s poetry collections and a short biography (TDQ, vol. XXXIII, pp. 299–302). |
31 | Lingyun Temple, in Taizhou 臺州, Zhejiang Province, is located in a breathtaking natural landscape, surrounded by picturesque mountains. |
32 | Taixu. Wansu Taohua Lingyun si 晚宿桃花靈雲寺 (An Evening Stay at Lingyun Temple, Where Peach Blossoms Flourish) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 246). |
33 | Taixu. Wo zhi zongjiao guan 我之宗教觀 (My Religious Views) (TDQ, vol. XXII, p. 225). |
34 | Taixu. Sanbao ge 三寶歌 (Song of the Three Treasures) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 262). |
35 | According to Taixu, Shi Ji’an was an exceptionally talented poet who deserved the title “poetic master” (shi zhi cizong 詩之詞宗) (See TDQ, vol. XXXI, p. 305). |
36 | On 11 November 1917, following the conclusion of the Buddhist assembly in Zhanghua 彰化, Taixu joined local officials and journalists at a poetry gathering (TDN, p. 59). The term 文字 refers to the poems the participants composed during that meeting. |
37 | “Conditioned phenomena” (youwei fa 有為法) are manifestations of causes and conditions. |
38 | Taixu. Zhanghua Tanhua tang jixi da Shi Ji’an彰化曇華堂即席答施寄庵 (Spontaneous Response to Shi Ji’an’s Poem at the Tanhua Hall in Zhanghua) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 82). This poem is a response to Shi Ji’an’s Zeng Taixu fashi 贈太虛法師 (A Poem Dedicated to the Venerable Taixu), ibid., p. 311. |
39 | Taixu. Jiuhua zashi shishou 九華雜詩十首 (Ten Miscellaneous Poems on Jiuhua) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 143). |
40 | Taixu wrote numerous articles on the subject of Chinese Buddhist education, including: Zhongguo de seng jiaoyu ying zenyang 中國的僧教育應怎樣 (How Should Buddhist Education in China Be?) (TDQ, vol. XIX, p. 31); Xiandai xuyao de seng jiaoyu現代需要的僧教育 (Contemporary Needs of Buddhist Education), ibid., p. 37; and Fojiao yingban zhi jiaoyu yu seng jiaoyu 佛教應辦之教育與僧教育 (Education in Buddhism and Buddhist Education that Should Be Established), ibid., p. 20. For more information about Taixu’s modern Buddhist education (see Li 2013; Travagnin 2017; Lai 2017). |
41 | The Ben Cao Gang Mu, compiled by the distinguished medical scientist, pharmacist, and naturalist Li Shizhen 李時珍 (1518–1593), is a comprehensive collection of Chinese materia medica from ancient times to the sixteenth century. |
42 | Li Shizhen, “zhujin 燭燼, candle remains” (Li 2021, p. 135). |
43 | Yi Wen Zhi, a significant bibliographic work compiled by Ban Gu 班固 (32–92) that forms part of the Hanshu 漢書 (History of the Former Han Dynasty), draws heavily upon Liu Xin’s 劉歆 (50 BCE–23 CE) Qishu 七書 (Seven Summaries). |
44 | Taixu. You Taibei jie 遊臺北街 (Exploring the Streets of Taipei) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 80). |
45 | In September 1917, Shanhui 善慧 (1881–1945), the abbot of Lingquan Monastery (Lingquan si 靈泉寺) on Yuemei Mountain 月眉山, Jilong 基隆, Taiwan, expressed his intention to organize a Buddhist assembly. He invited Yuanying 圓瑛 (1878–1953) to deliver a lecture, but the latter was unable to attend and suggested Taixu should take his place. Taixu had already planned his trip to Japan, so he decided to break his journey in Taiwan in order to attend the assembly (See TDN, p. 58). |
46 | Kyoto holds considerable historical and cultural significance as a political center of Japan from the Middle Ages to modern times. It served as the country’s capital from 794 to 1869. |
47 | Taixu. Jingdu you 京都遊 (A Visit to Kyoto) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 91). |
48 | Taixu. Jiuhua zashi shishou 九華雜詩十首 (Ten Miscellaneous Poems on Jiuhua) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 143). |
49 | Taixu. Guan Zongxian ju 觀宗閒居 (Observing the Leisure Dwelling) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 236). |
50 | Taixu. Xihu xiaye 西湖夏夜 (A Summer Night at West Lake) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 129). |
51 | West Lake is on the western side of old Hangzhou 杭州. Bai Juyi is credited with coining the appellation in one of his poems. |
52 | In ancient Chinese literature, jinsu金粟 typically denotes the wick of a lamp. In the context of this poem, it symbolically represents the Buddha. |
53 | Taixu. Jiuhua zashi shishou 九華雜詩十首 (Ten Miscellaneous Poems on Jiuhua) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 143). |
54 | Taixu. Shenye 深夜 (Late Night) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 11). |
55 | Taixu. Guichou chuxi 癸醜除夕 (New Year’s Eve of the Year Gui Chou) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 48). |
56 | In Die lian hua: Yuejin tianya libie ku 蝶戀花·閱盡天涯離別苦 (Butterflies in Love with Flowers: Experiencing the Bitterness of Farewell across the Ends of the Earth), a ci 詞 poem by Wang Guowei 王國維 (1877–1927), one verse expresses the transience of life: “The passage of time cannot be detained / Rosy cheeks bid farewell to the mirror, flowers to the tree” 最是人間留不住,朱顏辭鏡花辭樹. Wang Guowei, a renowned scholar and poet, hailed from Taixu’s hometown—Haining 海寧, Zhejiang Province. |
57 | During the early Republican period, Taixu underwent a series of tumultuous experiences that greatly influenced his life and work. (See TDQ, vol. XXXI, pp. 188–92). |
58 | The Mid-Autumn Festival (Zhongqiu jie 中秋節), observed on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, holds great significance in Chinese culture. It celebrates the reunion of loved ones, often represented by the full moon, and is infused with a profound sense of longing for one’s hometown and relatives. |
59 | Taixu. Renwu Zhongqiu Guanyue ting壬午中秋觀月亭 (Observing the Moon Pavilion on the Mid-Autumn Festival in the Year of Renwu) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 254). |
60 | Taixu. Huai Chen Chunbai 懷陳純白 (In Remembrance of Chen Chunbai) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 48). |
61 | Chen Chunbai was a native of Yongjia 永嘉, Zhejiang Province. |
62 | Taixu. Qiujiang wantiao 秋江晚眺 (Autumn Evening Gazing by the Riverside) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 13). |
63 | Taixu’s cherished grandmother exerted a profound and enduring influence on his life and literary career (See TDQ, vol. XXXI, pp. 155–56, 161–62). |
64 | Taixu. Zhouzhong muye 舟中莫夜 (Embracing the Night in the Boat) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, pp. 9–10). |
65 | In the same poem, Taixu writes: “The remaining drops of the night’s hourglass drip, and the dreams wane in the haze/The crows’ cries on both riverbanks penetrate the ears with a poignant sorrow” 滴殘更漏夢闌珊,兩岸烏啼入耳酸 (See TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 9). |
66 | |
67 | Wen Tingyun was a native of Taiyuan 太原 in Shanxi Province 山西省. His elegant, rhythmical, exquisitely crafted poetry often focuses on the themes of sorrow and loss. |
68 | Taixu. Bo Mensi 泊門司 (Anchored at Moji Ward) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 93). |
69 | Many of Taixu’s predecessors shared this opinion, especially during the high point of Tang poetry between the first year of the Kaiyuan 開元 era and the fourteenth year of the Tianbao 天寶 era (713–755). For instance, an esteemed poet of that period, Wang Wei 王維 (692–761), captured the imagination of both contemporary and future generations through his depiction of a seemingly infinite wasteland in Shi zhi saishang 使至塞上 (On a Mission to the Frontier). In particular, the famous lines “In a boundless desert lonely smoke rises straight/Over an endless river the sun sinks round 大漠孤煙直,長河落日圓” vividly evoke the grandeur and splendor of this vast landscape, leaving an indelible impression on the reader. Three centuries later, a scholar–official of the Northern Song Dynasty, Fan Zhongyan 范仲淹 (989–1052), revisited this theme in his Yujiaao Qiusi 漁家傲秋思 (The Pride of Fishermen): “All hills low/Dust touches the town with hue” 千嶂裏,長煙落日孤城閉. A third example is provided by Li Panlong 李攀龍 (1514–1570), a Ming Dynasty literatus, in his poem Guangyang shan daozhong 廣陽山道中 (The Path of Guangyang Mountain): “The thunderous roar descends upon a thousand peaks/The rain-hued colors arrive on myriad mountains” 雷聲千嶂落,雨色萬峰來. |
70 | A “pine wave” is the rhythmical sound of wind sweeping through a pine forest. |
71 | Taixu. Yuexia you Guling fan Zhibi feng hui Dalin月下由牯嶺翻擲筆峰回大林 (Moonlight from Guling over the Fanzhibi Peak to Dalin) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 115). |
72 | Hanshan. Shi Sanbai sanshou qi yiliuliu 詩三百三首其一六六 (Three Hundred and Three Poems: Poem One Hundred and Sixty-Six) (Xiang 2000, p. 434). In the annotation of this poem, Xiang Chu項楚 provides a detailed explanation regarding the historical context and rationale behind the comparison of the moon to a lamp. |
73 | Hanshan lived in seclusion at Guoqing Monastery (Guoqing si 國清寺) on Tiantai Mountain (Tiantai shan 天臺山). He practiced a unique amalgamation of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, reflecting a harmonious synthesis of all three influential schools of thought. |
74 | Taixu. Oucheng 偶成 (Occasional Composition) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 249). |
75 | Taixu traveled to Singapore in July 1925 in preparation for the much more ambitious journey to Europe and America that he would undertake three years later (See TDQ, vol. XXXI, p. 273). |
76 | In classical Chinese literature, the moon, like the lamp, is often used to convey homesickness. For instance, in his poem Jingye si 靜夜思 (A Tranquil Night), Li Bai 李白 (701–762) writes: “Looking up, I find the moon bright/Bowing, in homesickness I drown” 舉頭望明月,低頭思故鄉. |
77 | This notion is supported by the fact that Taixu resolved to return to China after a mere two weeks of recovery (See TDN, p. 147). |
78 | Sikong Shu. Xi waidi Lu Lun jiansu 喜外弟盧綸見宿 (Glad to See Cousin Lu Lun’s Overnight Stay) (Wen 2011, p. 286). |
79 | Taixu. Xianju 閒居 (Inactivity) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 128). |
80 | In Siming shi hua 四溟詩話 (Siming Poetry-Talk), a treatise on poetry dating from the Ming Dynasty, Xie Zhen 謝榛 (1495–1575) cites Sikong Shu’s poem as the finest example of a poet’s use of the falling leaves and autumn lights imagery group, placing it above similar works by Wei Yingwu 韋應物 (731–791) and Bai Juyi in terms of its powerful depiction of the season. |
81 | Lu Lun, a poet of the Tang Dynasty, faced a lack of success in his literary career. His poetic compositions primarily revolved around the themes of presentation and response, while also offering insights into the realities of life within the army. |
82 | Sikong Shu’s verses are frequently melancholic, especially when he reflects on the aftermath of war. |
83 | In classical China poetry, the candle is often used in place of a red lamp when depicting joyous or festive occasions. A notable example may be found in Li Shangyin’s 李商隱 (813–858) Huaxia zui 花下醉 (Intoxicated with Flowers), in which he gazes upon flowers after an evening drinking with friends: “Guests departed, now sober amidst the late hours/Holding a candle, [I] venture to behold the excessive blossoms” 客散酒醒深夜後,更持紅燭賞殘花. |
84 | There is a fine example in Li Shangyin’s Deng Leyou yuan 登樂遊原 (Atop Mount Leyou): “The setting sun seems so sublime/Yet it nears its waning hours” 夕陽無限好,只是近黃昏. |
85 | Taixu. Daguan yuan jijing 大觀園即景 (Observations of the Grand View Garden) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 249). |
86 | Taixu. Shufang yaosu Hengyang Huguo si 漱芳邀宿衡陽護國寺 (Invitation to Reside at Hengyang Huguo Temple by Shufang) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 232). |
87 | Shufang, who had been one of Taixu’s students, played a significant role in the latter’s activities in Hengyang. In December 1943, when Taixu became abbot of Huayao Temple (Huayao si 花藥寺), he undertook the reorganization of the Hengyang Buddhist Association (Hengyang fojiao hui 衡阳佛教会) and appointed Shufang as its president. |
88 | Huoguo Temple, also known as Jiulong Monastery (Jiulong an 九龍庵), was originally constructed in 1579 and underwent several reconstructions over subsequent centuries. However, it was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution (Wenhua dageming 文化大革命; 1966–1976). |
89 | Hengyang is in the south of Hunan Province 湖南省. On 6 December 1943, Taixu visited the city in order to promote the Buddhist Dharma. He received a warm welcome from his students, including Shufang (TDN, pp. 329–30). |
90 | China was in the midst of the most challenging phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1931–1945) at this time. |
91 | |
92 | |
93 | Taixu. Zeng Huang Baoguang 贈黃葆光 (A Poem to Huang Baoguang) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 126). |
94 | The Lugouqiao Incident, a military confrontation between Chinese and Japanese troops at Lugouqiao 盧溝橋 in Wanping County 宛平縣, Hebei Province 河北省, is widely regarded as the catalyst that ignited the Second Sino-Japanese War—a protracted and devastating conflict between the two nations. |
95 | Taixu. Lushan zhu mao jishi 廬山住茆即事 (Observations of Residing in a Bothy on Mount Lu) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 190). Taixu was living on Mount Lu (Lushan 廬山), a prominent Buddhist mountain in Jiangxi Province 江西省, at the time of the Lugouqiao Incident. |
96 | In Lushan zhu mao jishi, Taixu writes: “For three decades, I have borne the worries of the world/For twenty years, I have dedicated myself to the salvation of monks” 卅載知憂世,廿年勵救僧. |
97 | Also in Lushan zhu mao jishi, Taixu writes: “In the end, witnessing the bravery of demons/Withheld is the declaration that the Buddha lacks power” 終看魔有勇,忍說佛無能. |
98 | In Sanbao ge 三寶歌 (Song of the Three Treasures), composed toward the end of his life, Taixu writes: “With fullness of life, dedicating [my] being and destiny/In faith and acceptance, diligently fulfilling [my] duty” 盡形壽,獻身命,信受勤奉行 (See TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 262). |
99 | Taixu. Dacheng liqu liu boluomiduo jing guiyi sanbao pin jianglu 大乘理趣六波羅蜜多經皈依三寶品講錄 (A Discourse on the Chapter “Taking Refuge in the Three Treasures” in the Dasheng liqu liu boluomiduo jing) (TDQ, vol. IV, p. 44). |
100 | Laoku is one of the four sufferings (siku 四苦) associated with birth, old age, sickness, and death. |
101 | Taixu. Sishi chudu zai Bolin sheying ziti 四十初度在柏林攝影自題 (Self-Portrait Taken in Berlin at Forty) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 139). |
102 | Fushan, who displayed a remarkable intellect from a very young age, entered the monastic life at the age of thirteen and became one of Taixu’s students in August 1937. |
103 | Taixu. Tong Fushan 慟福善 (Sorrowful Death of Fushan) (TDQ, vol. XXXIII, p. 226). |
104 | Taixu. Man sishi ba shuoji huixiang wai zumu Zhang-Zhou shi mu Lüshi huozeng anle滿四十八說偈回向外祖母張周氏母呂張氏獲增安樂 (A Discourse in Verse on Turning Forty-Eight, Offering Dedication to Grandmother Zhang-Zhou and Mother Zhang for Increased Peace and Happiness) (TDQ, vol. XXXIV, p. 262). |
105 | In February 1947, Taixu returned to Ningbo to visit one of his masters, Zangnian 奘年. It was after this meeting—which Yinshun pointedly terms a “farewell” (you juebie zhi zhao 有訣別之兆)—that he composed Feng Zang Weng, including the lines “With unwavering dedication and simplicity, a lifetime promoting Buddhism/Transcending worldly affairs, freely and effortlessly” 勤樸一生禪誦力,脫然瀟灑出凡塵. There is a sense of urgency, of time slipping away, in these lines, coupled with a hint of sadness as Taixu reflects on the future of Chinese Buddhism after his master’s—and possibly his own—death. Moreover, he draws an implicit contrast between Zangnian’s selfless magnanimity and his own failure to find solace at the end of a life of devoted service. This echoes the sentiments of some of his earlier writings, where he occasionally describes his Buddhist endeavors as a “loss” (See TDN, p. 346). |
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Xu, X. “Lamp and Candle”: Classical Chinese Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry. Religions 2023, 14, 1077. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14081077
Xu X. “Lamp and Candle”: Classical Chinese Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry. Religions. 2023; 14(8):1077. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14081077
Chicago/Turabian StyleXu, Xiaoxiao. 2023. "“Lamp and Candle”: Classical Chinese Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry" Religions 14, no. 8: 1077. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14081077
APA StyleXu, X. (2023). “Lamp and Candle”: Classical Chinese Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry. Religions, 14(8), 1077. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14081077