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Article

Research on the Characteristics of the Aeolian Environment in the Coastal Sandy Land of Mulan Bay, Hainan Island

by
Zhong Shuai
1,2,*,
Qu Jianjun
3,
Zhao Zhizhong
1,2 and
Qiu Penghua
1,2
1
College of Geography and Environmental Science, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
2
Key Laboratory of Tropical Island Land Surface Processes and Environmental Changes of Hainan Province, Haikou 571158, China
3
Guangdong Provincial Laboratory of Southern Marine Science and Engineering, Guangzhou 511458, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13(8), 1506; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13081506
Submission received: 3 July 2025 / Revised: 3 August 2025 / Accepted: 4 August 2025 / Published: 5 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Coastal Engineering)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

The coastal sandy land in northeast Hainan Province is typical for this land type, also exhibiting strong sand activity. This study is based on wind speed, wind direction, and sediment transport data obtained at a field meteorological station using an omnidirectional sand accumulation instrument from 2020 to 2024, studying the coastal aeolian environment and sediment transport distribution characteristics in the region. Its findings provide a theoretical basis for comprehensively analyzing the evolution of coastal aeolian landforms and the evaluation and control of coastal aeolian hazards. The research results show the following: (1) The annual average threshold wind velocity for sand movement in the study area is 6.84 m/s, and the wind speed frequency (frequency of occurrence) is 51.54%, dominated by easterly (NE, ENE) and southerly (S, SSE) winds. (2) The drift potential (DP) refers to the potential amount of sediment transported within a certain time and spatial range, and the annual drift potential (DP) and resultant drift potential (RDP) of Mulan Bay from 2020 to 2024 were 550.82 VU and 326.88 VU, respectively, indicating a high-energy wind environment. The yearly directional wind variability index (RDP/DP) was 0.59, classified as a medium ratio and indicating blunt bimodal wind conditions. The yearly resultant drift direction (RDD) was 249.45°, corresponding to a WSW direction, indicating that the sand in Mulan Bay is generally transported in the southwest direction. (3) When the measured data extracted from the sand accumulation instrument in the study area from 2020 to 2024 were used for statistical analysis, the results showed that the total sediment transport rate (the annual sediment transport of the observation section) in the study area was 110.87 kg/m·a, with the maximum sediment transport rate in the NE direction being 29.26 kg/m·a. These results suggest that when sand fixation systems are constructed for relevant infrastructure in the region, the construction direction of protective forests and other engineering measures should be perpendicular to the net direction of sand transport.

1. Introduction

Since the late 1950s, with the intensification of global climate change and the impact of human activities, coastal erosion has become increasingly severe, seriously affecting the livelihoods and lives of coastal people. More than one-third of coasts are eroded in China, with sandy coasts more susceptible to erosion due to their material composition, with about 70% of China’s sandy coasts being eroded [1]. The total length of the coastline of Hainan Island is 1822.8 km, with erosion affecting about 78.9% of the current coastline. The sandy coastline has a total length of 785.7 km, with about 82% of sandy coasts suffering from erosion [2].
Wind drives coastal aeolian processes and landform evolution. Studying the characteristics of near-surface wind conditions and systematically evaluating the regional wind field not only provide an important basis for understanding the characteristics of sand movement and the formation and evolution of aeolian landforms, but also provide a theoretical basis for developing a comprehensive prevention and control system for regional aeolian hazard [3]. Drift potential (DP) refers to the potential amount of sediment transported within a certain time and spatial range, and it is also an important indicator for measuring the intensity of near-surface wind and sand activity and the evolution trend of aeolian landforms [4]. Fryberger [5] proposed a method for calculating sediment transport potential, used for the first time to study the near-surface wind field characteristics of typical sand dune areas in major deserts worldwide. This method has been widely recognized and applied in the field [6,7,8,9]. The study and application of sediment transport and potential in China are mainly focused on the northern regions, especially the inland deserts in the northwest, achieving fruitful results [10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. Martinho [17] researched the sandy landforms along the southern coast of Brazil, calculating sediment transport potential and studying the relationship between sediment transport potential and regional sand dune size, ultimately finding good agreement between them. Levin et al. [18] studied the changes in wind fields on Morton Island in southeastern Australia and their relationship with the morphology of coastal sand dunes, showing that wind force analysis is of great significance for the morphology of and dynamic changes in sand dunes. However, the application of sediment transport and sediment transport potential in studying coastal sandy landforms in China is relatively rare [19]. The evolution of coastal sandy landforms has received widespread attention with regard to aeolian geomorphology and aeolian physics [20]. Research on the development patterns and conditions of sand dunes in inland deserts and sandy areas [21,22,23,24,25], morphological evolution [26], surface airflow and erosion accumulation [27], wind sand flow structure [28,29,30,31], sedimentary structure [32], and sand dune movement patterns [33] has achieved fruitful results. Research on coastal sandy landforms began in Western countries through the use of precise measurement, remote sensing, and GIS technologies [34,35,36,37,38,39]. Observational studies have been conducted on the movement of and morphological changes in coastal sandy landforms in Europe, North and South America, Australia, and other regions [40,41,42,43,44,45]. Compared with the systematic research on coastal sandy landforms abroad, the relevant research in China is clearly insufficient. In the 1980s, research was mainly conducted on the types and evolution patterns of coastal sandy landforms in China [46,47,48]. Recently, the focus has mainly been on the observation and experimental study of coastal sand movement processes [49,50,51], and only a few observational results on the movement of and morphological changes in coastal sandy landforms exist [52,53].
Hainan Island is the second-largest island in China, located in the northern part of the South China Sea and situated on the northern edge of the tropics. Hainan Island has a tropical monsoon climate, with high temperatures and heavy rainfall throughout the year, distinct dry and wet seasons, and significant oceanic regulation. The annual average temperature is 22–27 °C, with an average of 16–21 °C in the coldest month (January) and an average of 28–35 °C in the hottest month (July). The annual precipitation is 1500–2500 mm, with more rain in the east and less rain in the west. The rainy season (May–October) accounts for 80% of the annual precipitation, with typhoons and rainstorm. The dry season (November–April) sees little precipitation and ample sunshine [54]. In total, 6–8 typhoons affect Hainan every year, mostly from July to October, bringing strong winds, rainstorms, and storm surges. The study area is located in Mulan Bay on the northeast coast of Hainan Island (Figure 1), which is a typical coastal sandy landform and one of the areas with the most typhoon landings in Hainan [55]. This study selected typical coastal sandy landforms where the natural state of open terrain exists without human intervention, with vegetation coverage that meets the average level of the region and continuously observed sand movement to explore how sand wind activity affects infrastructure and coastal landform.

2. Materials and Methods

A typical coastal sandy area of 500 m × 500 m was selected as the observation zone on the Mulan Bay Beach, located at 19°6′ N, 110°32′ E. An MW-S116 meteorological station was set up in the study area to continuously observe the environmental temperature (the accuracy is ±0.3 °C), wind speed (the accuracy is ±0.2 m/s), wind direction (the accuracy is ±3°), precipitation (the accuracy is ±5%), and other factors, and an omnidirectional sand accumulation instrument (consisting of a sand inlet, a sand container, a sand cover, and a cylindrical outer bucket) was installed to collect all sediment transport in all directions (360°).
The field meteorological station recorded meteorological data every half hour from 2020 to 2024. The whole year was divided into four seasons: spring from March to May, summer from June to August, autumn from September to November, and winter from December to February. This study used 5 m/s as the threshold wind velocity for most sand particles can be blown up [9] and screened and classified winds with a velocity of ≥5 m/s from the wind data based on their orientation. The winds were divided into 16 directions: N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, ESE, SE, SSE, S, SW, SSW, WSW, W, WNW, NW, and NNW. The measured sediment transport was divided into 8 directions: N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW. The wind speed was divided into 8 stages: 5 m/s ≤ V < 7 m/s, 7 m/s ≤ V < 9 m/s, 9 m/s ≤ V < 11 m/s, 11 m/s ≤ V < 13 m/s, 13 m/s ≤ V < 15 m/s, 15 m/s ≤ V < 17 m/s, 17 m/s ≤ V < 19 m/s, and V ≥ 19 m/s [11]. The average threshold wind velocity, wind speed frequency, and sediment transport rate were calculated based on the measured data for the wind direction, wind speed, and sediment transport in Mulan Bay.
Fryberger’s proposed method for calculating the drift potential was used as follows [5]:
DP = V2(V − Vt)t
where DP is the drift potential commonly expressed in vector units (VUs), V is the observed wind speed higher than the threshold wind speed (knot, 1 knot = 0.514444 m/s), Vt is threshold wind speed (knot), and t is the duration of the sand-driving wind, which can be replaced by the wind frequency, expressed as a percentage (%).
Drift potential (DP) can reflect the net sediment transport capacity within a certain area, where DP < 200 VU indicates a low-energy wind environment; 200 VU ≤ DP < 400 VU indicates a medium-energy wind environment, and DP ≥ 400 VU indicates a high-energy wind environment.
The formula for calculating sediment transport rate was as follows [5]:
Q = W/(L × ∆T)
where Q is the sediment transport rate, measured in kg/m∙a; W is the amount of sediment collected, measured in kilograms; L is the inlet width of the sediment collector, measured in meters; and Δ T is time, measured in years.
The resultant drift potential (RDP) represents the intensity of net aeolian transport within a year. The yearly resultant drift direction (RDD) represents the net dominant direction of aeolian transport within a year. The RDP and RDD can be calculated and synthesized with regard to the drift potential in various directions based on the frequency of the wind [5].
RDP = (C2 + D2)0.5
C = ∑(VU)sin(θ)
D = ∑(VU)cos(θ)
RDD = arctan(C/D)
where VU represents the DP in each wind direction (in this paper, we grouped winds into 16 directions), in vector units, and θ is the midpoint of each wind orientation class measured clockwise from 0° (north).
The directional wind variability index (RDP/DP) can reflect the wind direction combination within a certain area: when the RDP/DP is less than 0.3, it is a small ratio, related to composite wind conditions and blunt bimodal wind conditions; when the RDP/DP is between 0.3 and 0.8, it is a moderate ratio, related to blunt bimodal wind conditions and sharp bimodal wind conditions; and when the RDP/DP is greater than 0.8, it is a large ratio, related to both wide and narrow unimodal wind conditions [5].

3. Results

3.1. Wind Field Characteristics of the Coastal Sandy Land of Mulan Bay

3.1.1. Characteristics of Sand-Blowing Wind

Sand-blowing wind is an important indicator for studying the intensity of sand activity in a certain area. According to the meteorological data for Mulan Bay from 2020 to 2024 (Figure 2), the average annual sand-blowing wind speed in the study area was 6.84 m/s, the highest speed appeared in September (9.13 m/s), and the lowest speed appeared in August (5.31 m/s). There is an obvious windy season in this area, as from September to April, the average sand-blowing wind speed was 7.28 m/s. The low-wind season is mainly concentrated in summer, as from May to August, the average sand-blowing wind speed was 5.97 m/s.

3.1.2. Annual Sand-Blowing Wind Direction and Frequency

The wind direction determines the direction of sand movement, crucial for studying sandy landforms. An analysis of meteorological data for Mulan Bay from 2020 to 2024 showed that the frequency of annual sand-blowing wind (frequency of occurrence) in this area was 51.54%. The region is mainly dominated by easterly (NE, ENE) and southerly (S, SSE) winds, accounting for 23.13% and 12.58% of the annual wind direction, respectively. The highest sand-blowing wind frequency was found for the NE direction (13.80%), while the frequencies of the SSW, SW, WSW, W, WNW, NW, and NNW directions were all less than 0.3% (Figure 3).

3.1.3. Monthly Sand-Blowing Wind Direction and Frequency

The monthly sand-blowing wind direction in the area is consistent with the annual sand-blowing wind direction. Analyzing the frequency and direction of sand-blowing wind in each month (Figure 4 and Figure 5) shows that the highest sand-blowing wind frequency appeared in December in this region (84.68%). The NE direction was the dominant sand-blowing wind direction, with a frequency of 47.18%, followed by the ENE direction, with a frequency of 24.73%. The sand-blowing wind frequency exceeded 50% in months such as January, February, March, April, October, and November. The sand-blowing wind frequency in January was 62.90%, and the dominant wind direction was northeasterly (NE, ENE, E). The wind frequency in February was 55.75%, and the dominant wind direction was northeasterly (NE). The wind frequency in March was 60.89%, and the dominant wind directions were northeasterly and southerly (NE, SSE, S). The wind frequency in April was 78.47%, and the dominant wind direction was southerly (SSE, S). The wind frequency in October was 67.07%, and the dominant wind direction was northeasterly (NE, ENE, E). The wind frequency in November was 74.44%, and the dominant wind direction was northeasterly (NE, ENE). Finally, the sand-blowing wind frequency was relatively small from May to August, with August having the lowest wind frequency (4.97%), and the dominant wind direction was southeasterly (E, ESE, SE, SSE, S).

3.2. Distribution Characteristics of Sediment Transport

3.2.1. Annual Changes in Drift Potential

The annual drift potential (DP) and resultant drift potential (RDP) for Mulan Bay from 2020 to 2024 were 550.82 VU and 326.88 VU, respectively, indicating that the area is a high-energy wind environment (Figure 6). The maximum drift potential was in the NE direction (186.61 VU), followed by the ESE and S directions (88.18 VU and 66.02 VU, respectively). The annual directional variability index (RDP/DP) was 0.59, which is a moderate ratio and represents blunt bimodal wind conditions. The resultant drift direction (RDD) was 249.45°, corresponding to the WSW direction, indicating that the sand in Mulan Bay is generally transported to the southwest.

3.2.2. Monthly Changes in Drift Potential

The variation characteristics of drift potential in Mulan Bay have obvious seasonality. Analyzing the drift potential in each month (Figure 7) showed that January, February, March, April, September, October, November, and December were part of the windy season, with drift potential exceeding 30 VU. Among them, the drift potential (88.62 VU) and the resultant drift potential RDP (35.22 VU) in September were the largest, with a directional variability index (RDP/DP) of 0.39. The resultant drift direction (RDD) was 240.42°, occurring in a WSW direction. The resultant drift direction (RDD) in each month of the windy season was mainly southwest. In contrast, the drift potential in each month of the low-wind season (May–August) was less than 20 VU, and the resultant drift direction (RDD) was mainly to the northwest.

3.3. Annual Sediment Transport

A statistical analysis was conducted using the measured data from the omnidirectional sand accumulation instrument placed in the study area from 2020 to 2024 (Figure 8). The total sediment transport rate in the study area was 110.87 kg/m·a, with the maximum sediment transport rate being in the NE direction (29.26 kg/m·a), followed by the S, E, NE, SW, N, and NW with rates of 19.26 kg/m ·a, 13.25 kg/m·a, 12.15 kg/m·a, 11.48 kg/m·a, 10.61 kg/m·a, and 8.24 kg/m·a, respectively. The minimum sediment transport rate occurred in the W direction (6.61 kg/m·a). The sediment transport rate was consistent with the drift potential, being highest in the NE direction and lowest in the W direction.

4. Discussion

4.1. Aeolian Environment

There are three important periods resulting in dune building: (1) a period with storm surges resulting in dune erosion; (2) a winter period with mainly offshore winds; (3) a period with several days with strong onshore winds [56]. The annual drift potential (DP) and resultant drift potential (RDP) for Mulan Bay from 2020 to 2024 were 550.82 VU and 326.88 VU, respectively, indicating a high-energy wind environment. Sediment transport in the research area is mainly concentrated from September to April, with a resultant WSW drift direction throughout the year, indicating that the sand in Mulan Bay is generally transported in a southwest direction. Compared with other coastal sandy areas in China (for example, the total annual drift potential in the Changli coastal area of Hebei Province is 61.07 VU, and the resultant drift potential is 25.22 VU [57]), the sand activity in Mulan Bay, Hainan Island, is significantly stronger. The strong prevailing northeast wind from September to April is mainly influenced by the East Asian winter monsoon season and the combined strengthening of the northeast trade wind. From May to August, southeasterly winds prevail, mainly influenced by the East Asian summer monsoon season. Secondly, the southeasterly airflow of the subtropical high-pressure system intersects with the southwest monsoon in the South China Sea, causing the wind direction near Hainan Island to turn in a southeasterly direction. The high wind speed during the autumn and winter seasons is directly related to the active typhoon activity during that season. In summer, due to the influence of the subtropical high-pressure system in the western Pacific and the small temperature difference between land and sea, the wind speed is relatively low.

4.2. The Impact of Precipitation on Sand Activity

Water is the most important limiting ecological factor in arid sandy ecosystems, mainly being present as soil water. Soil water is the material basis for plant growth and survival. Its low level restricts the formation and development of vegetation in sandy areas. Degree of dune mobility reflects a balance between active sand transport, vegetation growth, and the development of surface crusts [58]. Vegetation cover on sand dunes mainly depends on wind power and precipitation. When this cover decreases below a minimal percentage, dunes will start moving [59]. Soil water content and its dynamic changes determine the occurrence or reversal of land desertification, and it is the main regulator of land desertification [60]. Rainfall is the main source of water in desert and sandy land, and the water infiltrated into aeolian sandy soil by rainfall is basically the only source of deep seepage water. Therefore, the soil moisture in the deep layer below 150 cm has a close relationship with precipitation and frequency [61]. The interannual variation process of leakage is basically consistent with the seasonal variation in precipitation, but there is a certain lag [62]. Moreover, in areas with heavy rainfall, the annual and seasonal dynamic changes in the two are more similar. With the decrease in precipitation, the similarity of the variation trend gradually decreases [63]. The sand activity is closely related to the properties of underlying surfaces such as sand particle size and sand moisture. Precipitation can directly or indirectly hinder the development and evolution of sand dunes, and an increase in precipitation leads to stronger agglomeration between sand particles, making it more difficult to transport sand [64]. The annual precipitation in the study region from 2020 to 2024 is 1508.96 mm, with the highest precipitation in autumn (September to November) at 693.88 mm, accounting for 45.98% of the annual precipitation. The lowest precipitation in winter (December to February) is 74.69 mm, accounting for 4.95% of the annual precipitation (Figure 9). The autumn drift potential in the study area is 257.41 VU, accounting for 46.73% of the annual drift potential, and the winter drift potential is 142.64 VU, accounting for 25.89% of the annual drift potential. Although there is more precipitation in autumn in the study region, it is mainly affected by storm surges, which have higher sand-blowing wind, leading to more sand activation. The combination of factors such as lower temperatures, less precipitation, and strong winds in winter makes autumn and winter the main seasons for aeolian activity in the study region.

4.3. The Important Impacts of Typhoons on Coastal Sandy Land

Due to the great destructiveness of typhoons or storms and the importance of their impact on coastal dunes, typhoons are a high-energy factor that has an important impact on the coastal wind-blown sand landform [65,66,67,68]. In particular, given its important representation of the interaction of waves, beaches, and dunes, the relationship between typhoons and the formation and evolution of coastal wind-blown sand landforms has attracted increased attention [69]. The intensity of storm surges significantly impacts the morphology of coastal sand dunes [70]. The main factors influencing the differential response of coastal sandy land to storm surges include storm intensity, duration, and frequency [71]. In September, when typhoons occurred, the wind frequency in the study area was only 19.16%, while the drift potential reached 88.62 VU, which is the maximum monthly drift potential. The storm response process of coastal aeolian geomorphology is actually the erosion, transportation, and accumulation process of coastal sandy sediments in storms [72,73,74]. Studying coastal aeolian sand movement under the effects of storms is also an important aspect of the coastal aeolian sand storm response and represents an essential link with coastal aeolian sand dynamic geomorphology research [75,76,77]. The storm surge accompanied by typhoons will transport a large amount of sand particles to the coast, providing sufficient material basis for developing sandy coasts [78]. The sediment transported to the coastal front dunes is mainly the result of low and intermediate wind transport [79]. The synthetic sediment transport direction of the typical typhoon month in September in this area is basically consistent with the measured annual sediment transport direction, and the NE direction is the largest, indicating that the typhoon is greatly significant for sediment transport in the coastal sandy land and an important force in shaping coastal landforms.

4.4. The Impact of Human Activities on the Evolution of Sandy Coasts

Human intervention plays a dominant role in altering dune mobility for most dunes, while climate and storms are also important drivers, especially for dune sites with limited human activities, with 93% (164 out of 176) of the reviewed sites from all over the world showing a loss of bare sand area due to an increase in vegetation cover and urbanization expansion, such as the change in traditional farming, coastal urbanization and tourism development [80]. Compared with other types of coasts, sandy coasts are the most unstable, vulnerable to erosion and retreat. In recent decades, the coastal erosion of Hainan Island has become increasingly serious, and the sea pollution caused by coastal erosion has become increasingly serious. Large areas of land resources and tidal flats have been lost due to bank collapse and coastline retreat, and the destruction and retreat of natural coastal defense forests have occurred intermittently along the coast around Hainan Island. As a result, coastal roads and farmland are threatened, and shelter forests and coastal buildings are severely damaged, posing a great threat to the survival of the coastal zone. Illegal sand mining has been rampant in Mulan Bay, Hainan Island, in the past few decades, resulting in land subsidence, seawater backflow, shoreline erosion, and serious land desertification. Secondly, in recent years, the region has experienced large-scale land reclamation and planting of cash crops, intensifying aeolian activity in the study region.

5. Conclusions

Mulan Bay, Hainan Island, is a typical sandy coast with strong aeolian activity in the study area, which forms a high-energy wind environment. The average annual sand-blowing wind speed from 2020 to 2024 in the study area was 6.84 m/s; the highest speed occurred in September (9.13 m/s). The frequency of annual sand-blowing wind was 51.54%. The region is dominated by easterly (NE, ENE) and southerly (S, SSE) winds, accounting for 23.13% and 12.58% of annual wind direction, respectively. The period from September to April is the windy season in the research area, also representing the concentrated time period for the formation and evolution of aeolian landforms.
The resultant drift direction (RDD) was 249.45°, occurring in the WSW direction, indicating that the sand in Mulan Bay is generally transported to the southwest. When the measured data collected using the sand accumulation instrument in the study area from 2020 to 2024 were used for statistical analysis, the results showed that the total sediment transport rate in the study area was 110.87 kg/m·a, with the maximum sediment transport rate of 29.26 kg/m·a occurring in the NE direction. The sediment transport direction was consistent with the drift potential. It is recommended that the construction of aeolian fixation systems for related infrastructure in this study area in the future should consider the direction of protective forests and other engineering measures, which should be perpendicular to the net sediment transport direction.
This study used a meteorological environmental research method and a new coastal sand accumulation observation method, of great significance for enriching and expanding the theory and method regarding the development and evolution of sandy coastal landforms, evaluating and controlling regional aeolian hazards. In the research process, we found that typhoons play an extremely important role in shaping coastal sandy land, the mechanisms of which lack deep research. In the future, we will focus on studying the characteristics of the typhoon wind field and the evolution of coastal sandy land after typhoons. We also found that sand transport was related to precipitation, soil moisture, surface roughness and wind conditions. In the future, we will focus on studying the quantitative relationship between soil moisture, surface roughness and sand-blowing wind in coastal sandy areas.

Author Contributions

Z.S. designed the experiments. Z.S., Z.Z. and Q.P. conducted the experiments. Z.S. analyzed the experimental data and wrote the manuscript. Q.J. reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was funded by the Hainan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (421RC1150) (423MS038) and the specific research fund of The Innovation Platform for Academicians of Hainan Province (YSPTZX202128).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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Figure 1. The study site is located in the northeast of Hainan Island, China, at the geographical coordinates 20° 50 N, 111° 03 E.
Figure 1. The study site is located in the northeast of Hainan Island, China, at the geographical coordinates 20° 50 N, 111° 03 E.
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Figure 2. Inter-monthly variations in sand-blowing wind speed at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
Figure 2. Inter-monthly variations in sand-blowing wind speed at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
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Figure 3. The distribution of the frequency of sand-blowing wind throughout the year at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
Figure 3. The distribution of the frequency of sand-blowing wind throughout the year at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
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Figure 4. The frequency of sand-blowing wind at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
Figure 4. The frequency of sand-blowing wind at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
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Figure 5. The distributions of the frequencies of sand-blowing wind from January to December at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
Figure 5. The distributions of the frequencies of sand-blowing wind from January to December at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
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Figure 6. Annual drift potential at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
Figure 6. Annual drift potential at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
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Figure 7. The monthly drift potential of Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
Figure 7. The monthly drift potential of Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
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Figure 8. Annual sediment transport rates at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
Figure 8. Annual sediment transport rates at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
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Figure 9. Monthly precipitation at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
Figure 9. Monthly precipitation at Mulan Bay (2020–2024).
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Shuai, Z.; Jianjun, Q.; Zhizhong, Z.; Penghua, Q. Research on the Characteristics of the Aeolian Environment in the Coastal Sandy Land of Mulan Bay, Hainan Island. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 1506. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13081506

AMA Style

Shuai Z, Jianjun Q, Zhizhong Z, Penghua Q. Research on the Characteristics of the Aeolian Environment in the Coastal Sandy Land of Mulan Bay, Hainan Island. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2025; 13(8):1506. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13081506

Chicago/Turabian Style

Shuai, Zhong, Qu Jianjun, Zhao Zhizhong, and Qiu Penghua. 2025. "Research on the Characteristics of the Aeolian Environment in the Coastal Sandy Land of Mulan Bay, Hainan Island" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 13, no. 8: 1506. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13081506

APA Style

Shuai, Z., Jianjun, Q., Zhizhong, Z., & Penghua, Q. (2025). Research on the Characteristics of the Aeolian Environment in the Coastal Sandy Land of Mulan Bay, Hainan Island. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 13(8), 1506. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13081506

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