Simplified Model Characterization and Control of an Unmanned Surface Vehicle
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Title | Authors | Methods | Results | Contributions | Advantages and Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adaptive Control Scheme for USV Trajectory-Tracking Under Complex Environmental Disturbances via Deep Reinforcement Learning | Yuan Zhou et al. [13] | Deep Reinforcement Learning (TD3) for trajectory tracking | Improved tracking under dynamic conditions; enhanced learning stability | Robust DRL-based control for USVs, superior to MPC | A: High adaptability to disturbances; D: High computational cost |
Network-Based Modeling and Sampling Guaranteed Cost Control for Unmanned Surface Vehicle Systems Under Stochastic Cyber-Attacks | Kui Ding and Quanxin Zhu [15] | DStochastic composite system with Lyapunov functions | Stabilizes USVs under cyber-attacks with controlled cost | Introduces a cost-effective control method for cyber-attack scenarios | A: Ensures system stability under uncertain conditions; D: Relies on precise system modeling |
Multi-Model Predictive Control Strategy for Path-Following of Unmanned Surface Vehicles in Wide-Range Speed Variations | Yingkai Ma et al. [11] | Multi-model predictive control (MPC) with LMI-based robust control and adaptive LOS guidance | Improved path-following accuracy and robustness under speed variations | Enhanced USV maneuverability and control efficiency in dynamic speed conditions | A: Higher efficiency in dynamic speed conditions; D: Computational complexity and need for precise models |
Investigation of Wind Effects on UAV Adaptive PID Based MPC Control System | A. S. Martinez Leon et al. [18] | Adaptive PID-based MPC control strategy | Improved UAV stabilization and positioning accuracy in the presence of wind disturbances | Enhanced remote surveillance missions along coastlines; insights into wind effects on UAV control | A: Effective for coastal surveillance missions; D: Limited to UAV applications, not directly applicable to USVs |
Adaptive Formation Control for Obstacle Avoidance in USVs | Hu Yancai, Liu Yang, et al. [17] | RBF neural networks and APF method for formation control | Effective obstacle avoidance while maintaining formation | Provides robust formation control in dynamic environments | A: Handles complex obstacle avoidance; D: May struggle with numerous obstacles or extreme conditions |
Safe Autonomy for Uncrewed Surface Vehicles Using Adaptive Control and Reachability Analysis | Karan Mahesh et al. [19] | Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC) with Moving Horizon Estimator (MHE) for real-time disturbance estimation | 45–81% reduction in position error compared to PID; enhanced real-time safety certification | Improved USV stability in dynamic environments and robust real-time safety verification | A: Improved stability and safety verification in dynamic environments; D: High implementation complexity and computational requirements |
Evolution of Algorithms and Applications for Unmanned Surface Vehicles in the Context of Small Craft: A Systematic Review | Luis Castano-Londono et al. [20] | Systematic literature review using PRISMA and bibliometric analysis | Identified 387 studies on USV applications and algorithm trends | Provided a comprehensive mapping of USV research, focusing on small craft applications | A: Comprehensive mapping of USV research; D: Does not propose new methods, only a review |
Hybrid Adaptive Dynamic Programming for Optimal Tracking Control of USVs | Shan Xue, Ning Zhao, et al. [16] | Integration of IRL and DED mechanisms | Reduced communication overhead and improved tracking | Reduces model dependency in tracking control | A: Efficient learning with minimal data transmission; D: Requires significant computational resources |
A Model Predictive Control Approach for USV Autonomous Cruising via Disturbance Learning | Maotong Cheng et al. [14] | Learning-based MPC, augmented by LSTM residual model | Improved course-keeping under disturbances; LSTM eliminates model mismatch | Improved hydrodynamics modeling for USVs through MPC and LSTM | A: Enhanced hydrodynamic modeling; D: Dependency on historical data for LSTM training |
Disturbance Estimation and Rejection in an Underwater Autonomous Vehicle | A. Thomas et al. [21] | Integral observer for disturbance estimation; PID for rejection | Accurate disturbance estimation and effective disturbance rejection in underwater environments | Effective disturbance estimation and rejection for underwater vehicles using integral observer | A: Effective disturbance handling; D: Limited to underwater vehicles, not directly applicable to USVs |
A Comparison of Intelligent Models for Collision Avoidance Path Planning on Environmentally Propelled Unmanned Surface Vehicles | Carlos Barrera et al. [22] | AI-based path planning using ANN, SVM, Random Forest, and Multiple Logistic Regression | ANN achieved the best accuracy and lowest error in trajectory optimization | Demonstrated AI effectiveness in collision avoidance and compliance with COLREGs | A: Demonstrated effectiveness of AI in collision avoidance; D: Requires significant computational resources for training |
DRL-Based Motion Control for Unmanned Surface Vehicles with Environmental Disturbances | Xiangyu Wu et al. [23] | TD3 algorithm (DRL) combined with PI controller | Improved stability and efficiency under wind and wave disturbances | Superior motion planning for USVs using TD3-PI under environmental conditions | A: Superior motion planning under environmental conditions; D: Requires extensive training and tuning |
USV Course Control Strategy based on the Disturbance Observer Under Disturbances of Winds and Waves | Xiuren Yue [24] | Nonlinear disturbance observer; composite control strategy (feedforward/feedback) | Strong anti-disturbance ability, accurate course tracking under continuous disturbances | Improved anti-disturbance strategy and course tracking for USVs | A: Improved anti-disturbance strategy; D: Limited to specific disturbance types |
Heading Control System Design for a Micro-USV Based on an Adaptive Expert S-PID Algorithm | Runlong Miao et al. [25] | Adaptive expert S-PID algorithm tested in pool and lake environments using STM32-ARM and LabWindows/CVI | Achieved 2–3° heading error vs. 5–6° with traditional PID, with improved stability and responsiveness | Robust framework enhancing precision and reliability in micro-USV control | A: Robust framework for micro-USV control; D: Limited scalability to larger USVs |
2. Experimental Platform
- High-performance embedded controller, CompactRIO-9075.
- Global Position System (GPS) module, VK2828U7G5LF.
- Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), UM7-LT.
- Ultrasonic speed sensor, CS4500.
- Electric water propeller thrust, a TP100 Inrunner brushless motor.
- Steering nozzle, HS-7954.
- Telemetry systems, based on an Xbee-PRO SX module.
3. Unmanned Surface Vehicle Models
3.1. System Inputs and Outputs
3.2. Experimental Data Generation
3.3. USV Proposed Models
3.3.1. Transfer Function Model
3.3.2. State Space Model
- No iterative optimization: N4SID is non-iterative and therefore fast.
- Numerically robust: Uses Singular Value Decomposition, which is stable and reliable.
- Works well with noise: Especially with short or noisy data records.
- Step 1: Construct block Hankel matrices. For a chosen block size i, construct the block Hankel matrices from the data as follows:Define the future input–output Hankel matrices . The number of columns .
- Step 2: Toeplitz matrix. Compute the oblique projection of future outputs onto the row space of past data , orthogonal to the space covered by , as follows:
- Step 3: Singular Value Decomposition (SVD). Apply SVD to the projection matrix:The system order n is determined by inspecting the singular values in . Retain the dominant n components as follows:Then, estimate the extended observability matrix:
- Step 4: Estimate the state sequence. Estimate the state sequence from the following:
- Step 5: Estimate the system matrices. With estimated, solve the following equations via least squares:This yields the state-space matrices and D.
4. Unmanned Surface Vehicle Control
4.1. Control Strategy 1—Independent Control Loops with Decoupling of Interactions
4.2. Control Strategy 2—State Feedback Control
- Step 1. Check controllability: Construct the controllability matrix.If , the system is controllable, and you may proceed. Otherwise, full pole placement is not possible.
- Step 2. Calculate the characteristic polynomial of A.
- Step 3. Choose the desired closed-loop poles: Select n desired eigenvalues based on the desired transient response and stability. Compute the desired characteristic polynomial.
- Step 4. Calculate the feedback gains for the equivalent controllable canonical form.
- Step 5. Calculate the equivalence transformation.
- Step 6. Calculate feedback gains .
5. Discussion
- Interpretability: Simple models are often more transparent and intuitive, making understanding the system’s behavior easier.
- Efficiency: Simpler models typically require fewer computations, making them ideal for real-time applications or iterative simulations.
- Lower hardware demands.
- Reduced data requirements: With fewer parameters, you need less experimental or observational data to calibrate the model.
- Lower risk of overfitting: Simple models are more robust, especially in noisy or limited datasets.
- Control-friendly: Many classic control strategies assume linear or low-order models.
- Observability and controllability: These properties are more straightforward to verify and maintain in simple systems.
- Closed-form solutions: Simpler models often allow for analytical solutions or approximations, revealing key insights into the dynamics.
- Sensitivity analysis: Easier to assess how parameters influence outcomes.
- Model verification: Simpler structures facilitate the identification of errors or inconsistencies in the model assumptions.
- Baseline comparison: Simple models provide a reference for testing the added value of complexity.
- Iterative improvement: Based on performance gaps, you can progressively add complexity as needed.
- Simple structure and intuitive understanding: Easy to implement with minimal code or analog components. Tuning can be performed using basic heuristics or a trial-and-error approach. Little specialist knowledge is needed; it is widely taught and used.
- Required system knowledge and modeling: It can often work with no explicit or straightforward model (e.g., gain and time constant). Design focuses on measured behavior (e.g., step response and frequency response).
- Very low computational load: It can run on inexpensive hardware or analog circuits. It is suitable for high sampling rates and fast dynamics.
- Real-world applicability: It is ideal for single-variable or loosely coupled systems, and these approaches are widely used in typical engineering applications due to their quick deployment and well-understood nature.
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
FOPDT | First Order Plus Dead Time |
GPS | Global Position System |
IAE | Integral Absolute Error |
IFOPDT | Integral First Order Plus Dead Time |
IMU | Inertial Measurement Unit |
PI | Proportional-Integral |
PD | Proportional-Derivative |
PID | Proportional-Integral-Derivative |
SMC | Sliding Mode Control |
USV | Unmanned Surface Vehicles |
PWM | Pulse Width Modulation |
NMEA | National Marine Electronics Association |
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Parameter | Value |
---|---|
Length | 2462 mm |
Beam | 896 mm |
Draft | 15 mm |
Weight | 117 kg |
Speed | 9 kn |
Type | Variable | Symbol | Range |
---|---|---|---|
Input | Propeller Thrust | 0∼100 % | |
Propeller Angle | −45°∼45° | ||
Output | USV Speed | 0∼9 kn | |
USV Heading | 0°∼360° |
Controller | Parameter | Value |
---|---|---|
PI | 13.7861 | |
3 | ||
PD | 0.7143 | |
1 |
Control Strategy | IAE Index |
---|---|
1 | = 12.39 |
= 136.9 | |
2 | = 7.943 |
= 37.91 |
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Lovo-Ayala, A.; Soto-Diaz, R.; Gutierrez-Martinez, C.A.; Jimenez-Vargas, J.F.; Jiménez-Cabas, J.; Escorcía-Gutierrez, J. Simplified Model Characterization and Control of an Unmanned Surface Vehicle. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 813. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13040813
Lovo-Ayala A, Soto-Diaz R, Gutierrez-Martinez CA, Jimenez-Vargas JF, Jiménez-Cabas J, Escorcía-Gutierrez J. Simplified Model Characterization and Control of an Unmanned Surface Vehicle. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2025; 13(4):813. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13040813
Chicago/Turabian StyleLovo-Ayala, Aldo, Roosvel Soto-Diaz, Carlos Andres Gutierrez-Martinez, Jose Fernando Jimenez-Vargas, Javier Jiménez-Cabas, and Jose Escorcía-Gutierrez. 2025. "Simplified Model Characterization and Control of an Unmanned Surface Vehicle" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 13, no. 4: 813. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13040813
APA StyleLovo-Ayala, A., Soto-Diaz, R., Gutierrez-Martinez, C. A., Jimenez-Vargas, J. F., Jiménez-Cabas, J., & Escorcía-Gutierrez, J. (2025). Simplified Model Characterization and Control of an Unmanned Surface Vehicle. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 13(4), 813. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13040813