The Contribution of Agroecology to Smart Cities and Different Settlement Contexts in South Africa—An Analytical Review

Abstract

This paper supports the idea of agroecology playing an integral role in development ‘smart cities’ and its application in different settlement contexts in South Africa. As alluded to in the People-Centered Smart Cities framework, the application of the smart cities approach can be extended to various settlement contexts. This paper promotes ‘the smart city’ concept in different contexts, including rural and small settlement environments, incorporating agroecology, a paradigm which guides us towards building sustainable and equitable urban environments. This approach can significantly contribute to the improved and more resilient design and development of human settlements. The Preferred Reporting Items for Reviews and Meta-analysis were employed to analyze primary and secondary data sources, thereby formulating descriptive and analytical themes around agroecology and smart cities. This paper utilized 54 articles, offering a robust foundation for the paper’s analysis and discussions. Additionally, the paper underscores the adherence to policy and legislative spaces for smart city strategy-led budgeting. It advocates for robust financial policies and long-term development financial strategies aligned with several the Sustainable Development Goals, but especially SGD 11, which is to create inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable cities and habitats. The construction of smart campuses, smart rural settlements, and smart school programs is demonstrated by the Centre for Ecological Intelligence at the University of Johannesburg’s food systems hub, the Phumulani rural agrivillage, and the Eastern Cape and Tshwane food security school programs. These showcase projects act as compelling models illustrating how the principles of smart cities can be applied to diverse settlement contexts.

1. Introduction

Agroecology is a critical aspect of urban design and development. It promotes a territorial approach to development, encouraging the creation of integrated urban and rural development plans. This approach allows urban areas to recognize the multiple benefits that sustainable landscapes can provide, such as re-connecting producers and consumers to shorten value chains and increase resilience [1]. In the context of smart cities, agroecology can play a significant role by implementing inclusive approaches, stimulate a vibrant, mixed urban economy, and limit carbon footprints [2]. In South Africa, the concept of smart cities is being embraced, with plans for places such as Lanseria to promote urban sustainability and promote the principles that underpin the smart city. These principles include innovation, sustainability, efficiency, connectivity, and technology [3]. Agroecology fits perfectly into this vision, contributing to all these principles. Globally, the integration of agroecology in urban design and development is seen as a pathway towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It is a movement to transform into ecologically sustainable, just, and socially equitable food systems. However, agroecology’s success often depends on local governments’ support, which can be influenced by strong social movements persuading their governments to put supportive policies in place [4].

Problems faced by all the cities in South Africa include high levels of water and air pollution, landfills, inadequate infrastructure to ensure optimal service delivery, high levels of crime, and historical legacies of segregation and inequality. Cities in South Africa need to move beyond neoliberal planning and develop cities that provide a better life for urban residents [5]. The State of the Nation Addresses (SONAs) of 2019 and 2020, by President Cyril Ramaphosa, stated the need to build smart cities and announced more concrete plans to develop smart cities in the country. These high-level national statements have sparked discussion around the notion of Smart Cities within South Africa. Agroecology is not just a practice or a science; it is a philosophy that can guide us towards more sustainable, resilient, and equitable urban environments. It is a key component in the toolbox for designing and developing smart cities in South Africa and worldwide [3].

1.1. Application of the Smart Cities Approach in Different Settlement Contexts

The smart cities approach can indeed be extended to various settlement contexts. The People-Centered Smart Cities framework, as proposed by UN-Habitat, aligns with New Urban Agenda’s Shared Vision #11, which advocates for “cities for all”. This vision underscores the equitable use and enjoyment of cities and human settlements. This approach is designed to foster inclusivity and ensure that all inhabitants, irrespective of the generation to which they belong or their backgrounds, can inhabit and produce cities and human settlements that promote equity, and that are safe, healthy, accessible, affordable, resilient, and sustainable [6,7]. The smart cities approach emphasizes human settlements where human and social capital investments are made. Traditional and modern communication infrastructures are leveraged to fuel sustainable economic development and improve life quality. In rural and low-density areas, the smart city framework can be adapted to focus on enhancing connectivity, optimizing resource use, and fostering local economic development. This involves integrating Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to improve infrastructure, governance, and service delivery, while also promoting sustainable practices like agroecology. Agroecology can be seamlessly integrated into this framework by supporting localized food systems, enhancing biodiversity, and promoting environmental stewardship. By tailoring the smart city approach to the unique needs of rural and low-density areas, we can illustrate how agroecology contributes to creating sustainable and resilient communities, thereby enriching the overall smart city narrative [7].

Despite the growing recognition of agroecology’s role in sustainable urban development, a significant research gap exists in understanding its integration within smart city frameworks, particularly in the South African context. While smart city initiatives emphasize technological innovation, efficiency, and connectivity, there is limited research on how agroecological principles can complement these elements to create resilient, inclusive, and ecologically sound urban environments. The predominant focus on infrastructure and digital connectivity often overlooks localized, community-driven approaches such as urban agriculture, circular economies, and decentralized food systems, which are essential for sustainable urban resilience. Moreover, the practical implementation of agroecology within diverse settlement contexts including rural settlements and peri-urban areas remains underexplored.

In the context of low-income settlements, it is crucial to understand the processes and dynamics behind community-led management. This understanding can help address issues such as socio-spatial and environmental vulnerability, resilience, and quality of life. The smart cities approach can be effectively applied in different settlement contexts to create more inclusive, resilient, and sustainable cities. The key lies in tailoring the approach to meet the specific needs and context of the settlement.

1.2. Research Question

Can agroecology contribute to the applicability of smart city development in South African cities and settlements?

1.3. Objectives

The objective of this study is to explore the role of agroecology in developing smart cities and habitats in South Africa. It seeks to better understand human settlements and development plans and investigate how agroecology can bolster the efforts of government departments, city councils, and municipalities in creating smart cities. Several characteristics of the smart cities model conceptualized within the Human-Smart Environment and Interactions (HSEI) framework have been implemented by the University of Johannesburg’s (UJ) Centre for Ecological Intelligence (CEI) in collaboration with the Siyakhana Growth and Development NPO (SGD) at campuses at UJ, Tshwane, and the Eastern Cape school urban food garden, as well as the nutrition projects and the Phumulani Agri-Village in Mpumalanga. utilizing the HSEI framework, these projects will lead to invaluable micro-lessons and foster a more comprehensive and productive understanding of smart settlements, thereby augmenting the relationship between environmental assets, and ecosystem services. This is particularly pertinent to the circular agroecological model replicated in other urban and peri-urban sites [8].

2. Materials and Methods

This paper adopts a comprehensive approach to reviewing the literature by systematically identifying, analyzing, and synthesizing relevant studies. Both primary and secondary data sources were considered, with secondary data systematically gathered from reputable repositories such as Google Scholar, the World Bank’s international repository, and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Thematic analyses were conducted to identify descriptive and analytical patterns within the selected studies, employing an iterative process of coding, categorizing, and synthesizing data. A narrative synthesis approach was used to present findings in a structured and objective manner, ensuring a comprehensive and balanced perspective. The selection of this methodology is driven by the need for a rigorous, transparent, and systematic approach to reviewing and synthesizing existing research. A literature review was chosen to ensure the inclusion of high-quality and relevant studies by following explicit selection criteria, reducing bias, and enhancing the reliability and reproducibility of findings. Thematic analysis was employed due to its ability to identify, categorize, and synthesize patterns within complex and interdisciplinary datasets, facilitating a structured yet flexible understanding of emerging themes. Given the heterogeneity of data sources ranging from qualitative case studies to quantitative reports, a narrative synthesis approach was deemed most suitable for integrating the diverse findings while preserving contextual depth. This methodological framework not only allows for a comprehensive examination of the research topic but also ensures a balanced and analytically robust interpretation of the literature, making it well suited for addressing multifaceted research questions in an interdisciplinary context.

3. Literature Review

3.1. Agroecology Framework

Agroecological approaches are important for promoting localized solutions and utilizing resources and capacities by creating more equitable and sustainable platforms. It is a bottom–up approach which delivers homegrown solutions to local problems. Applied agroecology is based on 10 essential elements [9] (Figure 1). These elements are interlinked and interdependent but embrace circular and solidarity economies. This model enhances and empowers communities by making them key agents of change by giving them autonomy and adaptive capacity. This makes agroecology fundamentally different from other systems used to achieve sustainable development. Furthermore, its integrated framework is an important addition to the concept of smart cities and different human settlements [3].

Agroecology, with its focus on sustainable food production and environmental respect, can play a pivotal role in the development of smart cities and different settlement contexts in South Africa. It offers many benefits, ranging from ensuring food security to fostering economic development [10]. Furthermore, agroecology champions the cause of sustainable food production. It provides a robust framework for producing sufficient, affordable, nutritious, and healthy food for rural and urban populations, without causing adverse environmental impacts. This aspect is particularly crucial in climate change, where traditional agricultural practices might falter [4]. Secondly, agroecology can be a significant source of job creation and income generation. The promotion of local food systems and small-scale farming can contribute to the economic vitality of smart cities, providing livelihoods for many. Thirdly, agroecology inherently respects the environment and is adaptable to climate change. It promotes biodiversity, soil health, and water conservation, making it an integral component of environmentally sustainable smart cities. In addition, agroecology addresses critical social issues. It is guided by principles that focus on environmental sustainability, social justice and redress, and economic fairness and participation. These principles align well with the broader goals of smart cities, which aim to be inclusive and equitable [11].

Lastly, urban agriculture, a significant aspect of agroecology, is vital in food provision for poor urban households. It ensures that healthy, affordable, and accessible food is available to all, enhancing food security in urban areas. Integrating agroecology into the development plans of smart cities can help South Africa create urban environments that are not only technologically advanced but also sustainable, resilient, and beneficial for all residents. It presents a holistic approach to urban development that respects the environment, promotes economic growth, and upholds social justice [12].

3.2. Concept of Smart Cities/Human Settlements

The smart city concept is rooted in the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to enhance operational efficiency, disseminate information to the public, and improve the quality of government services and citizen welfare. The primary objective of a smart city is to optimize different settlement contexts, including urban and rural functions, and stimulate economic growth, while concurrently enhancing the quality of life for its inhabitants through the application of intelligent technologies and data analysis. Smart cities employ a diverse array of software, user interfaces, and communication networks in conjunction with the Internet of Things (IoT), to provide interconnected solutions for the public. IoT is a network of interconnected devices that communicate and exchange data, and it encompasses a wide range of entities, from vehicles and home appliances to sensors located on the street [13].

The success of a smart city is contingent upon the symbiotic relationship between the public and private sectors, as the creation and maintenance of a data-driven environment often extends beyond the purview of the local government. For instance, implementing smart surveillance cameras may necessitate collaboration and technological input from multiple companies. Beyond the technology employed by a smart city, there is a requisite for data analysts to evaluate the information generated by smart city systems. This allows for the identification and resolution of any issues, as well as the discovery of potential enhancements. In essence, a smart city leverages a framework of ICT to establish, implement, and promote developmental practices to address urban challenges. This results in a cohesive, technologically enabled, and sustainable infrastructure [10,14].

The smart city concept and definition are summarized below in

Table 1. Smart city definition and concepts for e-governance modeling [10].

Key Focus Areas (KFAs)	Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) of Smart Cities
Economy	Public expenditure on education, joblessness rate, GDP per head of the city population, public expenditure on RDI and RTI.
Education	Foreign language skills, personal computer skills, secondary-level education ratio, patent applications per inhabitant, participation in life-long learning and others.
Governance	Number of universities and research centers, percentage of households with internet access, e-government online availability and e-government use by individuals. Smart meters and smart readers. To achieve KFAs and KPIs in terms of import and export in 55 countries in Africa, smart cities must develop transport regulations using technology, especially in various regional economic communities (RECs) and smart cities in the nine provinces of South Africa [5,15,16].
Environment	Optimal use of electricity, CO2 emission reduction strategy, green spaces, efficient water utilization, policies to contain urban sprawl, and proportion of recycled waste, amongst others.
Livelihood	Museum visits, percentage of the area for sports space and leisure activities, theater and cinema attendance, number of public libraries, total book loans and media outreach, amongst others.

. These could apply to different settlement contexts.

3.3. The Promises and Perils of the Smart Cities Approach in Different Settlements

Addressing the challenges of smart cities necessitates a multifaceted, intelligent, collaborative, and community-oriented approach. Such an approach can effectively tackle the root causes of urban and other habitat challenges. One viable strategy involves promoting a citizen-centric development model that fosters social innovation and justice, civic engagement and activism, and transparent and accountable governance. This model cultivates a smart society that provides equal opportunities and works towards reducing inequalities. It is crucial to acknowledge that the underlying drivers of various smart cities differ from place to place. Therefore, smart city strategies may need to incorporate elements of different approaches in varying proportions and with varying emphases tailored to the unique needs and circumstances of each city and settlement. In essence, addressing the challenges of smart cities and settlements requires a comprehensive and collaborative effort from all stakeholders involved. It is through such collective action that we can ensure the successful and sustainable development of our urban environments [17,18,19].

3.4. Application of the Smart Cites Approach in Different Settlement Contexts in South Africa

South Africa is making some progress in the development of smart cities. In his State of the Nation address in February 2021, President Cyril Ramaphosa announced the conceptualization of several new cities in the post-apartheid era [20]. In South Africa, a ‘smart city’ is defined as an urban and rural area that utilizes innovation to achieve its desired outcomes. This innovation extends beyond technology, encompassing various aspects of urban life [21]. A smart city in South Africa is characterized by opportunity, amenity, safety, resilience, inclusivity, and prosperity, with innovation permeating financing, design, construction, operations, and governance. Currently, there are three planned ‘smart cities’ in South Africa: Lanseria, Nkosi City, and an African coastal smart city in the Eastern Cape [3,4]. Lanseria’s smart city development, expected to take approximately 25 years to complete, is aimed at establishing the first post-apartheid city in South Africa, based on ‘best practice’ in urban sustainability and the principles underpinning the smart city. The city will be constructed around Lanseria International Airport, located north of Johannesburg. The South African Smart Cities Framework (SCF), developed by the Department of Cooperative Governance (DCoG) and the CSIR, provides impartial information about smart cities in South Africa to municipalities, national and provincial government, the private sector, civil society, and other stakeholders [15]. South Africa’s approach to smart cities involves clearly defining a smart city from a South African perspective and addressing existing challenges without emulating first-world smart city models. The national framework (Figure 2) and policies for smart cities should clearly define the roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders, be flexible and amendable in line with the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), and incorporate the building blocks of smart cities, including STEM education, citizen rights, enablers (such as power, water, and internet connectivity), urban versus rural considerations, shared goals, and shared visions [16].

3.5. Blend of Agroecology and Smart City Approach in Different Contexts

The integration of agroecology and smart cities is a burgeoning concept incorporating agroecological practices within urban environments. Agroecology, a transformative approach, advocates for ecologically sustainable methods that foster just and socially equitable food systems. This approach empowers individuals to exercise autonomy over their dietary choices and the manner and location of food production. Agroecology, with its focus on environmental sustainability, social justice, and economic fairness, can enhance smart cities by promoting urban farming, circular economies, and community-based food networks [23,24].

The smart cities approach strives to amalgamate various systems such as the economy, transportation, and education. The objective is to engender more efficient and sustainable environments by applying technology and data. When agroecology and the smart cities concept are synergized, a well-balanced and harmonious framework is created. This congruent agenda encompasses agriculture initiatives that are in close proximity to food sources, and supportive and enabling ecosystem services [25,26]. In South Africa, ongoing projects and research initiatives focus on the socioeconomic and environmental assessment of agroecological practices at the farm and landscape levels. These initiatives aspire to provide food security, decent jobs and incomes, and environmentally respectful food production that adapts to climate change [7]. The fusion of agroecology and smart cities presents a promising approach to address several interlinked sustainability challenges, particularly in low- and medium-income countries. It offers a pathway towards more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive urban food systems [3,16].

3.6. Application of the Smart Cities Approach at the University of Johannesburg, Phumulani Agrivillage and Eastern Cape and Tshwane Schools Program

The Centre for Ecological Intelligence at the University of Johannesburg is applying smart city and agroecological approaches at foundational levels across several projects. These approaches have been implemented at UJ campuses, especially at the CEI Agroecological Hub, at the Bunting Road campus; smart systems and technology have also been applied at the Phumulani Agrivillage in Mpumalanga and within the Tshwane (Gauteng) and Eastern Cape Schools food and nutrition program. These models demonstrate the adaptability and effectiveness of the blended smart cities agroecological approach in diverse contexts.

3.7. Smart Campuses

The CEI Agroecological Hub is a practical and dynamic exemplar of a multidisciplinary facility. It demonstrates how diverse stakeholders can converge and collaborate to ensure food and nutrition security. The hub integrates aquaponics, hydroponics, horticulture, and permaculture practices, which have been replicated in various settings such as schools, campuses, villages, and communities beyond the confines of UJ. In aquaponics, activities include managing water quality, monitoring nutrient levels, maintaining fish stock, and optimizing plant growth, while hydroponics involves setting up nutrient reservoirs, adjusting pH and EC levels, and testing plant varieties for resilience. Horticulture efforts focus on soil preparation, composting, crop rotation, organic pest control, and vermicompost making, whereas permaculture emphasizes restores soil health, increases biodiversity, and improves water retention through techniques like mulching, composting, and natural soil building. These systems not only show potential for decentralizing access to nutritious food, thereby contributing to climate adaptation and mitigation, but also present opportunities for a circular bioeconomy [27]. Research indicates that aquaponics can yield comparable, if not superior, results to traditional hydroponics in terms of plant growth and nutrient content, particularly when nutrient levels are optimized [5,28]. For instance, studies have shown that aquaponic systems can produce crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals compared to conventional methods, which is crucial for enhancing nutritional outcomes in food-insecure populations [29,30]. The integration of these systems within educational institutions fosters a hands-on learning environment, enabling students to engage with cutting-edge agricultural technologies and practices [31].

Given its location within a university campus, the CEI Agroecological Hub embodies the smart campus concept, an emerging trend in higher education. Using digital transformation opportunities, smart campuses aim to reform university students’ and staff’s teaching, learning, and research experiences. Often perceived as miniature replicas of smart cities, smart campuses serve as living labs for developing and adopting smart technologies in addition to their traditional functions [32].

Furthermore, the Hub aligns with the broader smart cities’ framework, which is structured around four major domains: society, economy, environment, and governance. In the societal domain, the Hub fosters community engagement and knowledge-sharing, equipping students and surrounding communities with practical skills in agroecology. This is supported by findings suggesting that urban agriculture (UA) fosters social inclusion and enhances community resilience, providing practical skills to students and local communities [33,34]. The economic aspect is reflected in the Hub’s potential to generate income through sustainable food production, local market integration, and entrepreneurial ventures in urban agriculture. Studies indicate that urban farming can enhance food security while providing fresh produce to urban populations, thus creating economic opportunities for urban farmers [35,36].

Environmentally, the Hub demonstrates low-carbon, resource-efficient agricultural models that contribute to climate change mitigation. The adoption of low-carbon agricultural technologies is essential for minimizing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing ecological efficiency, which is increasingly recognized as vital for sustainable urban development [37,38]. From a governance perspective, it provides an innovative platform for policy experimentation and the development of sustainable urban food policies. This governance aspect is vital, as effective policies can lead to improved community participation and investment in urban agriculture, further solidifying its role in the smart cities framework [39,40].

While the CEI Agroecological Hub represents a promising initiative in integrating agroecology with smart campus concepts, there remains a need for more specific details on its implementation and impact. Future research should explore case studies of communities that have benefited from these systems, quantitative data on food production and sustainability metrics, and insights into challenges faced during implementation. In this way, the Hub can serve as a replicable model for agroecological transformation in diverse urban and rural contexts.

Through decentralized urban farming, rooftop gardens, and vertical agriculture, agroecology maximizes land use efficiency, mitigates heat island effects, and enhances local food security. It promotes circular resource flows by utilizing organic waste for composting, capturing rainwater for irrigation, and integrating renewable energy sources such as solar-powered greenhouses. By fostering biodiversity through polycultures and integrated pest management, agroecological practices improve soil health and reduce dependency on synthetic inputs.

Therefore, when tailored to the specific needs and context of the settlement, the smart cities approach can indeed be applied in different settlement contexts to create more inclusive, resilient, and sustainable cities and settlements.

South Africa’s current policy landscape, as it pertains to smart cities, emphasizes innovation, sustainability, and inclusivity, aligning with the principles of agroecology. However, to effectively incorporate agroecology, policies must be adjusted to support sustainable agricultural practices within urban planning and development. This could involve revising land use regulations to prioritize urban and rural agriculture in a range of settings, providing incentives for agroecological practices, and ensuring that financial strategies align with the goals of Sustainable Development Goal 11.

3.8. Smart Rural Settlements

The Phumulani Agrivillage (PAV), situated in Belfast, Mpumalanga, South Africa, is a compelling example of a post-mining agrivillage. Comprising 32 households and approximately 200 individuals, PAV was developed to create a sustainable, agroecological-based village that provides decent jobs and income for the resettled beneficiaries and households. The project aimed to establish a sustainable rural livelihood within an economic and social development framework that could be replicated elsewhere. It also sought to provide environmentally conscious solutions, encompassing soil fertility, nutrition, green energy, and water security. Research indicates that socially conscious farms, which prioritize community engagement and environmental stewardship, tend to achieve greater sustainability and continuity in their operations [41]. This is particularly relevant for PAV, as it seeks to foster a community-oriented approach to agriculture that enhances local food systems and promotes social involvement.

The application of the smart cities approach at PAV is evident in several key areas. Firstly, the smart economy is realized by generating multiple revenue streams such as vegetable, egg and poultry meat sales, training, and potential eco-tourism, thereby creating sustainable jobs. A study carried out by Marchesani and Masciarelli (2023) [41] indicated that smart cities are increasingly adopting innovative approaches to tourism that prioritize sustainability and efficiency, thereby attracting more visitors and generating economic benefits. This is further supported by the work of Lee et al. (2020) [42], who discuss how smart tourism cities utilize technology to improve the overall visitor experience, which can lead to increased economic activity.

Furthermore, a suitable and local governance structure has been established that facilitates community members to participate in the decision-making process through the CPA. Smart living, smart environments and mobility are promoted by using green energy sources such as biogas digesters and solar power and integrating sensors for data collection on variables such as temperature, soil fertility, and moisture content, as well as WiFi connectivity ICT. This holistic approach also incorporates smart citizens and thus demonstrates how the principles of a smart village promote sustainability and resilience [43,44].

3.9. Smart School Programs

The Eastern Cape and Tshwane School Program (ECSPs) represents models of the smart cities approach being applied in an educational setting. The program has established integrated and sustainable organic food gardens, as well as water, sanitation, and waste management systems. Additionally, it focuses on capacity building and training for teachers, learners, and local communities.

This program incorporates several elements of the smart cities approach. It contributes to reducing food miles through localized food production. It fosters an inclusive governance system that encourages strong community participation. It encourages education through a computer skills development program involving school pupils, staff, and community members. It advocates environmental sustainability through agroecological farming methods and systems.

The program’s setting up of organic food gardens has been pivotal in promoting localized food production, which significantly reduces food miles and enhances food security. Localized urban and rural food systems are recognized for their social benefits, including education and community connection, which are essential for fostering food justice and resilience in urban settings [45,46]. By creating urban gardens, the ECSP not only addresses nutritional needs but also serves as a platform for education and social interaction among students, teachers, and community members [47].

Lastly, it encourages a smart way of living through efficient rainwater harvesting, and improved sanitation. The program demonstrates how the principles of smart cities can be effectively integrated into school settings, creating more sustainable and resilient communities.

4. Discussion

A green smart city and settlements/habitats are progressively and incrementally shaped by its citizens, who actively participate in various activities. These activities encompass transferring skills and knowledge, developing infrastructure, and implementing food planting and growing initiatives in collaboration with local retailers and markets. Such citizen-led initiatives contribute to urban nature restoration activities and foster micro-economic activities more sustainably [16]. For instance, citizen engagement in urban and rural or settings greening projects has been shown to foster stronger public support and has democratized the management of public spaces, addressing issues such as green gentrification and ensuring inclusivity for marginalized communities [48,49]. This collaborative approach enhances the effectiveness of urban policies and initiatives, as it integrates diverse perspectives and local knowledge into the decision-making process [50,51]. Furthermore, citizen participation has been shown to moderate the relationship between urban infrastructure and quality of life, suggesting that when citizens are involved in decision-making processes, the outcomes are more favorable for community well-being [52].

Moreover, citizen-led initiatives in urban greening and food production have been identified as vital components of sustainable city development. Oikonomaki et al. (2024) [48] highlight that citizen engagement in urban greening projects not only complement institutional efforts but also democratizes the planning and management of public spaces, thereby promotes a sense of ownership among residents. This participatory approach is echoed by Ghose and Johnson (2020) [52], who underscore the importance of citizen participation in creating smart cities that are environmentally sustainable and economically viable.

The framework of agroecology can serve as a valuable tool in this context. It can be adopted or adapted by town planners and government officials to promote the development of sustainable cities. Agroecology, with its emphasis on sustainable and regenerative agricultural practices, aligns well with the goals of a green smart city. It encourages biodiversity, soil health, and water conservation, thereby contributing to the environmental sustainability of urban areas [53]. In essence, the transformation into a green smart city is a collaborative and dynamic process. It involves the active participation of citizens, the strategic use of sustainable agricultural practices, and the supportive role of town planners and government officials. Through such collective efforts, cities can evolve into sustainable, resilient, and vibrant urban environments [7,11].

The City of Johannesburg and the wider Gauteng region have abundant agricultural natural resources. Agri-park spaces will thus allow the wider city population to appreciate nature near both work and living spaces, which can inspire greater efforts to facilitate and enhance nature by planting and growing food in their respective communities. This approach contributes to the human-smart environment and interactions model to address the legacy of the past in terms of human settlements to champion, lead and master green smart city models as defined by the UN SDG 11 indicator. The strength of the HSEI model rests on the institutionalization and correct apparatuses of the agroecological approach. This approach can build green economic hubs within cities with huge economic incentives for enhanced agroeconomic development opportunities that attract greater academic partnerships among government sectors, international organizations, businesses, the donor community, youth and women, and other actors and stakeholders. To achieve these ideals, inspired leadership and good governance are necessary for the reduction of carbon emission and reducing 70 per cent of greenhouse gas emission consumption in most cities [16,22].

The concept of smart campuses, rural settlements, and smart school programs, as exemplified, provide compelling illustrations of how the principles of smart cities can be applied to diverse settlement contexts. The CEI Agroecological Hub serves as a practical and dynamic model of how higher education institutions can enhance campus life by integrating elements of smart cities approach. This includes promoting a smart way of living through the efficient use of resources and reduced food miles for students and staff, fostering a smart environment using alternative energy sources such as biogas digesters and solar power, and cultivating smart citizens through research, development, innovation, and creativity. Efficient resource management not only reduces environmental impact but also fosters a culture of sustainability among students and staff, aligning with the broader goals of smart cities [54].

PAV exemplifies the application of the smart cities approach in rural settlements. It demonstrates effective governance through collaborative approaches, the realization of a smart economy through the generation of multiple revenue streams that create sustainable jobs, and the promotion of smart living by using green energy sources such as biogas digesters and solar power, as well as the integration of sensors for data collection. The ECSP program showcases the application of the smart cities approach in school settings. It contributes to the reduction in food miles through localized food production, fosters an inclusive governance system that encourages strong community participation, promotes education through a computer skills development program involving school pupils, staff, and community members, advocates for environmental sustainability through the use of agroecological farming methods and systems, and encourages a smart way of living through efficient rainwater harvesting. In conclusion, these examples demonstrate the versatility of the smart cities approach and its potential to be tailored to the specific needs and contexts of different settlements, contributing to creating more sustainable and resilient communities. [16,21,22].

5. Conclusions

As a member of the African Union and a significant economic hub on the continent, South Africa has, on the one hand, prioritized the development of smart cities and settlements; on the other hand, there has been a huge gap in the implementation of this concept. This endeavor extends beyond settlement modernization; it is also about restoring national pride through wealth creation. In this context, wealth creation transcends traditional economic activities. It involves using Open-Source Software (OSS) for modeling and simulation, which is crucial for managing the transition to green smart cities. The Open-Source Software (OSS) tools used for modeling and simulation in the transition to green smart cities include UrbanSim, with recent versions in the 4.x range, and OpenModelica, which is typically around version 1.20.0 or higher. However, this transition must consider global climate changes and the ongoing impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly in a water-scarce country like South Africa. If integrated into settlement planning, the agroecology framework, emphasizing sustainable and regenerative agricultural practices, holds immense potential to address pressing issues such as poverty and food insecurity. It can contribute significantly to the environmental sustainability of settlements, thereby enhancing the overall quality of life.

The journey towards smart cities and settlements in South Africa is a multifaceted process that involves technological innovation, skills development, environmental consideration, and socio-economic transformation. Through collective efforts, South Africa can pave the way for a sustainable, resilient, and prosperous future. The application of smart cities in different settlement contexts can reduce economic poverty, effectively deal with systemic unemployment and inequalities amongst citizens according to the country’s blueprint, and address many of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially Goal 11. The smart cities approach can reverse the negative consequences of climate change, reduce rural–urban migration, and transform informal settlements into improved dwelling places based on natural assets such as Catchment Management Areas (CMAs), wetlands, ecosystems, and species. All human settlement planning must be designed and planned to reflect our rich heritage and the green engineering infrastructure values that we aspire to reflect. This can generate sound and relevant information through utilizing rich analyses of decades of research and models, advancing South Africa’s objectives of smart cities to champion a green economy. However, this is not a ‘quick fix’; consolidated efforts need to be made by all stakeholders to close the gaps between the promises and the perils as described above. Therefore, achieving a smart settlement is a medium- to long-term goal. This paper has identified significant gaps in information and knowledge on the smart cities approach. More research is needed on applying the smart cities approach in different settlement contexts. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on sustainable urban and rural settlements by systematically synthesizing the literature and providing actionable recommendations for advancing resilient and adaptive development practices.

6. Key Recommendations

Another important aspect is applying agroecology for green smart cities and settlements. Agroecology promotes sustainable and regenerative agricultural practices, contributing to the environmental sustainability of urban areas. Green smart cities and settlements nourish and nurture their environments, enabling healing and positive rehabilitation effects. This can help reverse the current desertification of human settlement areas in various municipalities and cities in South Africa. Adherence to and implementation of policy and legislative spaces for smart city strategy-led budgeting is critical. This must be informed by the required reconfiguration of 257 municipalities into smart cities and settlements and the establishment of new cities and settlements in South Africa. These initiatives should be guided and supported by robust financial policies and the long-term development financial strategies. These strategies should align with Sustainable Development Goal 11, which aims to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.

Human capital development and capability-based approaches are also crucial. These should include community projects and collaborations with academic institutions and international development agencies. The aim is to enhance skills, foster innovation, and achieve global competitiveness. In essence, the transformation into smart cities involves a multifaceted process that includes efficient service delivery, strategic budgeting, human capital development, and the application of agroecology. South Africa can pave the way for a sustainable, resilient, and prosperous future through such collective efforts.