Consumer Perceptions of Greenwashing in Local Agri-Food Systems and Rural Tourism

Abstract

The current article examines how Latvian consumers perceive the sustainability of rural tourism services and locally produced food, with particular attention paid to their views on misleading environmental claims. For small-scale agricultural producers and rural tourism providers, sustainability communication has become common, yet formal regulation and consumer clarity issues often remain uncertain. The study is based on a mixed-methods approach that contains a comprehensive, multi-dimensional literature analysis and quantitative nation-wide survey data analysis (SPSS 27) with a thematic interpretation of consumer attitudes towards sustainability, trust, and greenwashing. The research findings show that while consumers generally support sustainable and ethically produced goods and services, their trust depends heavily on the transparency and credibility of the information provided. Official certifications and clear communication were seen as trustworthy, while vague promotional claims, especially in digital media, were often met with scepticism. The study also reveals how different factors such as education level, income, and place of residence influence the ability to recognize potential greenwashing. Given the growing global concern about false environmental claims, this article provides valuable insights not only for Latvia but also for other countries facing similar challenges in promoting sustainable rural development while preserving consumer trust in the green economy.

1. Introduction

In recent years, there has been a growing number of publications across Europe exploring the sustainability of rural tourism and agricultural products, particularly in light of the European Green Deal and broader rural development strategies [1,2,3]. Experts representing different national contexts have examined a range of topics, such as sustainable tourism models, environmentally friendly farming practices, and the role of EU policies such as the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Farm to Fork strategy [4,5,6]. These efforts aim to support greener, fairer, and more resilient rural economies, and it is obvious that rural communities today are under increasing pressure to adopt sustainable practices [7,8], which is necessary not only to meet environmental targets but also to stay competitive and appealing to a new generation of eco-conscious consumers. This dual demand causes a real challenge for rural entrepreneurs, many of whom already operate with limited resources. Moreover, recent global disruptions, such as the war in Ukraine, have added further pressure by disrupting supply chains, thus increasing production costs, and negatively affecting consumer spending habits. In this context, local businesses’ sustainability efforts are no longer just about being environmentally responsible or economically competitive, but they are also aimed at building resilience in these times of high uncertainty, particularly in Eastern Europe. These challenges are especially visible in remote areas, where rural tourism and local small-scale agriculture are common types of small business struggling hard to remain attractive, credible, and financially viable. Younger, eco-conscious consumers, in particular, are not only selective but also deeply committed to their values, and thus do not support brands or services that fall short of their ethical or environmental expectations, even where there is an objective justification [9,10,11]. As a result, today, many countries are actively rethinking how to position their rural destinations and local products to meet growing sustainability demands while staying competitive for increasingly selective consumer markets. This study is aimed at exploring the views and expectations of Latvian consumers, offering new insights into sustainability and digitalization issues that are influencing consumer decisions in the rural tourism and locally produced food sectors.

Latvia’s CAP Strategic Plan 2023–2027, which provides a clear focus on sustainability, competitiveness of agriculture, support for rural tourism, diversification of rural economies, and social cohesion [12], claims that agriculture and rural tourism are priority sectors in Latvia’s national development plans and EU-supported programs and are the key tools for achieving sustainability, regional cohesion, and long-term rural vitality. However, Latvian consumers generally have less disposable income than their counterparts in many Western European countries [13,14], which naturally makes them more price-conscious in their everyday decisions. While many tend to support the idea of buying local or sustainable products in principle, the higher cost of small-scale or locally produced goods can be a serious obstacle. These products, which are often more expensive than conventional alternatives, can seem inaccessible for some households, especially when budgets are tight. Moreover, Latvia’s historical context—namely, long years under Soviet Union control—has shaped its specific relationships with rural life and local agriculture production. Although the Latvian character is historically rooted in agriculture, for many, especially older generations, being a farmer and living in a rural area was not a matter of personal preference or lifestyle, but rather a necessity imposed by the structure of the state. As a result, rural living is sometimes seen less as a source of pride or identity and more as a reminder of poverty, hardship, or obligation. This perspective differs notably from that found in many Western European countries, where rural tourism and local food are often associated with sustainability, wellness, and a return to traditional values. In this context, rural products tend to carry emotional and aspirational appeal, whereas in Latvia the connection may be more grounded in practicality and historical experience [15,16]. Therefore, recognizing the importance of these issues and the peculiarities of the Latvian cultural background, the authors conducted a nationwide survey in Latvia as part of the research project “Increasing Sustainability and Competitiveness Through Green and Digital Innovations in the Rural SMEs”. The survey was carried out by KANTAR Latvia, which is a globally recognized market research company and operates in more than 90 world markets, thus ensuring that the data collected are reliable and trustworthy, and that the findings obtained during the survey are valid and useful for broader analysis or policymaking. Before launching the survey, the authors took a closer look at consumer attitudes towards the green transition, alongside the “greenwashing” concept, which is often seen as one of its unintended negative consequences. According to World Law Group, greenwashing is a form of corporate deceit or marketing spin that capitalizes on the rising demand for sustainable products by presenting an illusion of environmental stewardship without substantive commitment [17]. The theoretical framing of greenwashing is underpinned by the following: (1) legitimacy theory, which views it as a strategy to align environmental disclosures with social norms in order to gain or maintain legitimacy, whether or not claims are substantiated; (2) stakeholder theory, in which greenwashing is used to manage relationships and meet societal expectations that extend beyond financial performance; (3) signalling theory, which explains how firms send positive, sometimes misleading, signals to shape market and stakeholder perceptions; (4) competitive altruism theory, which in turn suggests that organizations engage in greenwashing to appear more responsible than competitors [18]; (5) and socio-cultural and geopolitical theories that show how greenwashing practices vary across contexts, corporate cultures, and political environments [19]. Consequently, these different theoretical lenses encourage further research on greenwashing, promoting a multi-dimensional understanding that encompasses legitimacy, competition, communication, stakeholder relations, and broader societal contexts.

To better understand both the theoretical foundations and practical implications of greenwashing, the authors conducted a comprehensive, multi-dimensional literature analysis of existing research works on the topic.

2. Methodology

The research was conducted based on a mixed-methods methodology that combined both qualitative and quantitative research methods in consistent methodological steps (Figure 1).

The aim of the study was to identify consumer perceptions of greenwashing in local agri-food systems and rural tourism in Latvia. This study was guided by three central research questions, each addressing a specific and interrelated dimension of the topic.

(RQ1) What are the main research trends, challenges, and current topics surrounding the concept of greenwashing in academic literature?

To address this question, the authors conducted a comprehensive and multi-layered literature review. This approach combined bibliometric mapping, systematic review techniques, and thematic analysis, which allowed the authors to trace how the concept of greenwashing has evolved across different disciplines, identify prevailing debates, and uncover gaps in the literature that suggest directions for future research.

(RQ2) How do factors such as education, income, and place of residence influence consumers’ attitudes towards tourism and agricultural products, particularly in situations related to greenwashing risks?

(RQ3) How do Latvian consumers perceive the sustainability of rural tourism services and locally produced agricultural goods?

The authors explored this question through a nationwide and representative survey particularly designed to identify public attitudes, awareness levels, and trust in sustainability claims related to rural tourism and local food products. The aim was to understand how sustainability is perceived and valued by consumers in a specific national context. By using quantitative analysis of the survey data, the authors examined how different demographic groups respond to sustainability communication. The focus was on how personal background might shape the ability to detect or question potentially misleading environmental claims, and what effect it has on the communication strategies companies use in rural tourism and agri-food promotion.

In the 1st phase of the study, the authors conducted a multi-dimensional literature analysis, which is a complex and cross-disciplinary approach. According to Zhang, 2023, multi-dimensional literature analysis can be defined as an approach that examines literature (or textual data) across multiple dimensions or factors simultaneously, rather than focusing on a single aspect [20,21]. The specific benefit of the current analysis lies in the fact that it incorporates not only marketing and consumer behaviour aspects but also ethics, policy, rural development, and environmental governance. Therefore, for the current study, a traditional linear review would not have been sufficient to reflect overlapping perspectives, nor to reveal how the concept of greenwashing has evolved across different sectors and national contexts.

By combining bibliometric mapping, systematic review techniques, and thematic analysis, the authors were able to achieve the following: (1) identify the research trends and growth of publications in Scopus (1996–2025); (2) find out prevailing themes and keywords; (3) detect the existing gaps in the literature (e.g., limited studies on Eastern European contexts or rural sectors); and (4) synthesize the obtained insights across academic, empirical, and policy-oriented studies, thus ensuring both depth and breadth of coverage. The multi-dimensional analysis focused on Scopus-indexed publications during the period 1996–2025, including peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, conference papers, and editorials; this approach was selected because Scopus offers widely accepted bibliometric indicators in Latvian academic research and thus ensures international comparability. The current study used only English-language publications to ensure methodological consistency, accessibility, and alignment with international research standards. During the analysis of literature sources, the authors applied a structured, multi-layered process—a bibliometric analysis to map publication volume, keywords, and research networks. The systematic screening to select the most relevant studies was based on inclusion of particular criteria (topic relevance, publication type, timeframe), whereas thematic content analysis was utilized to extract insights on consumer perceptions, policy debates, and governance mechanisms around greenwashing. Upon completion of the literature analysis, the authors conducted comparative synthesis, linking the obtained findings with the specific context of Latvia’s rural tourism and agri-food systems. Consequently, the multi-dimensional approach adopted here allowed the authors to produce a unitary yet nuanced synthesis, connecting global research debates with Latvian consumer realities.

In the 2nd phase of the study, empirical data were collected by KANTAR Latvia through a representative population structured survey (CATI) in March 2025, which was developed by the authors. The average length of the structured telephone interviews was 20 min. In shaping the sample, the focus was placed on individuals who actually use rural tourism services and purchase locally produced agricultural goods. To make sure their answers would be meaningful, participants were selected based on having enough knowledge and experience to comment on the topics of the study. Special attention was paid to balancing the sample in terms of gender, age, and region; thus, it represented the population of Latvia. With these steps, the final group of respondents (n = 1004) mirrors the demographic structure of Latvia and can be regarded as nationally representative. The survey questionnaire was based on a list of statements about green-washing, rural tourism services, and digitalization of rural business, which respondents were asked to assess according to a five-point Likert scale (1—agree, 2—rather agree, 3—rather disagree, 4—disagree, 5—hard to say). The survey was conducted on the basis of the methodological and ethical principles of social research; it was anonymous, and the respondents were asked for informed consent prior to answering the questions. The results of the survey were analysed in an aggregated way.

In the 3rd and 4th phases, the obtained answers were processed using SPSS statistical software 27, which was followed by data analysis that involved the identification of regularities and relationships between variables with the aim of examining consumer perceptions of sustainability, greenwashing, and digitalization. Statistical studies commonly use non-numeric variables known as chi-square tests as a way to determine if there is a correlation between them [22]. The symbol for this is χ2. The significance of Pearson’s chi-square distribution is that statisticians can interpret findings using statistical methods that are independent of normal distributions [23]. An effective statistical test, the chi-square test can be used to test hypotheses relating to nominally measured variables. In order for the chi-square test to be effective, it should be appropriate for the test’s purpose, hypothesis, and data [22]. The focus was placed on the specific context of rural tourism and local agricultural production in Latvia.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Comprehensive, Multi-Dimensional Literature Analysis of Greenwashing Concept and Its Discourses

The aim of the literature analysis was to answer RQ1—how the existing body of literature conceptualizes, addresses, and responds to greenwashing, and what gaps remain in linking these insights to the bioeconomy and rural development context.

A bibliometric review using the Scopus database shows that around 355 publications feature the term greenwashing in their titles between 1996 and 2021, with a sharp increase starting around 2019. Of these, 137 specifically focus on greenwashing in the context of sustainability reporting, published between 2003 and 2023. The research comes in various formats, ranging from journal articles and book chapters to conference papers and editorials, with journal articles making up the largest share [24].

The authors’ analysis in

Table 1. Comprehensive, Multi-Dimensional Literature Analysis of the Greenwashing Concept and Its Discourses in the Context of Rural Development and Local Food Systems: Evidence from the Scopus Database.

Theme/Focus Area	Description/Key Insights	Period of Analysis	Main Supporting Studies	Relevance to Rural Development and Local Food Systems
Volume and growth of publications	Approx. 355 publications with greenwashing in the title (1996–2021), with rapid growth post-2019.	1996–2021 (peak post-2019)	[25,29]	Highlights the growing need to scrutinize “green” claims, including those from agri-businesses marketing rural or local food systems.
Focus on sustainability reporting	A total of 137 publications focus specifically on greenwashing in sustainability reporting.	2003–2023	[24]	Relevant for rural producers and cooperatives promoting sustainable practices; risk of greenwashing through misleading certifications.
Common keywords and themes	Frequently used keywords: sustainability, CSR, business ethics, environmental policy—showing a multidisciplinary research scope.	1990–2023	[25]	CSR and sustainability claims are central to rural branding and local food identity—important to guard against misuse.
Emerging research trends	Rapid increase in concern about misleading sustainability claims, especially among businesses. Consumers are seen as central in identifying and reacting to these claims.	Last 5 years	[23,29]	Consumers of local and rural food systems increasingly demand transparency and authenticity in sustainability claims.
Systematic reviews and theoretical models	Reviews develop integrated models that examine causes, impacts, and resistance to greenwashing across cultural and policy contexts.	Ongoing	[18]	Frameworks can inform policy and advocacy efforts targeting rural supply chains and agri-marketing ethics.
Consumer perception studies	Studies assess how well consumers detect greenwashing using surveys and experiments; results show detection improves when awareness is prompted.	Ongoing	[33]	Consumer awareness is crucial for rural/local markets where labels like “organic”, “natural”, or “farm-raised” may be misused.
Policy and governance focus	Research explores how greenwashing can be addressed through ESG disclosures, regulation, and compliance frameworks using policy or mixed-methods analysis.	Ongoing	[34]	Important for rural development policies to integrate anti-greenwashing measures in subsidy programs, certifications, and local food labelling.

reveals that studies using bibliometric methods highlight several consistent patterns in greenwashing research, and among the keywords most often associated with the term “greenwashing” are sustainability; corporate social responsibility; environmental policy; and business ethics [25,26,27,28,29]. The increasing number of publications related to this topic reflects not only the seriousness of greenwashing as a topic, but also its inherently cross-disciplinary nature, which is a call to action for more active collaboration among academic disciplines such as environmental science, ethics, and marketing, namely, the consumer behaviour sub-discipline. In the past five years, academic interest in greenwashing has risen significantly. This trend also highlights a concern among scholars about the impact of misleading environmental claims on public trust and the effectiveness of sustainability efforts. Such practices are increasingly viewed as serious obstacles to global sustainability commitments and overall environmental progress. At the same time, consumers can no longer be regarded as passive recipients of green messaging; instead, they are playing a more active role in questioning and holding companies accountable, thus reinforcing their influence in pushing for greater transparency and responsible business conduct [30,31,32]. One emerging direction for future research is potential legal accountability for greenwashing. As the issue becomes more visible, there is increasing discussion around the need for regulatory frameworks that can hold organizations legally responsible when their actions undermine environmental integrity.

The systematic review of Scopus publications related to the “greenwashing” concept, presented in Table 1, offers a fresh perspective by introducing a new model that brings together how greenwashing is framed, the impact it has, and the ways it can be challenged. By exploring the deeper motivations behind greenwashing, the study helps build a better understanding of its broader effects on society. For example, the study by Feghali, Najem, and Metcalfe in 2025 [18] analysed how greenwashing takes shape in society, paying attention to what drives it, the strategies companies use, and the impacts it has. It also highlights the factors that can help prevent such practices. Instead of treating greenwashing as a single, uniform issue, the analysis approaches it through different cultural and geopolitical aspects. There are also several Scopus-indexed publications that focus on empirical research into how well consumers can recognize greenwashing claims. These studies often use surveys, experiments, or case studies to assess consumer awareness and reactions, which are areas of particular relevance to this paper. The study by Fella and Bausa in 2024 [33] explored how well consumers can recognize greenwashing. Through two experiments, the researchers found out that while people can generally tell the difference between truly green, greenwashed, and non-green products, they are much better at spotting greenwashing when they are prompted to look for it. Without that awareness, most consumers are easily misled. Accordingly, the findings suggest that simple cues or interventions could help direct consumer attention and reduce the effectiveness of greenwashing tactics.

It is also important to mention that there are available studies that have explored how greenwashing could be prevented, with a focus on governance, regulatory compliance, and ESG (environmental, social, and governance) reporting [34,35]. This analysis approach is focused on policy analysis or combining different research methods to offer practical solutions.

Overall, the multi-dimensional literature analysis conducted by the authors shows a strong and growing interest in understanding greenwashing not just as a theoretical concept, but also as a widespread issue that shapes how people view sustainability and how businesses are held accountable. The increasing trend of publications demonstrates that both practical policy efforts and consumer-focused studies aimed at improving transparency, strengthening regulations, and encouraging more honest environmental communication are evolving over time [36], thus highlighting the need for further exchange of ideas and cross-border collaboration between researchers [37,38].

3.2. Survey of Latvian Consumer Views on Greenwashing in the Rural Business Sector

Most of the survey questions are based on a Likert scale, and there are also questions that respondents are able to answer very quickly, as they are provided with a choice of answers. Due to the specific nature of the survey and time constraints, only a few questions are open-ended. The nationwide survey was conducted from 3 March 2025 to 18 March 2025 and covered the entire territory of Latvia, thus ensuring a random sample. The average duration of the interviews was 22.88 min. A total of 1004 respondents participated in the nationwide survey. The gender distribution of participants was 48.8% men and 51.2% women. In total, there were six age categories in this survey: 9.2% were 18–24 years old, 14.9% were 25–34 years old, 21.6% were 35–44 years old, 18.8% were 45–54 years old, 18.9% were 55–64 years old, and 16.2% were 65–74 years old. Education levels of respondents ranged from 2.7% with a primary education or less to 12.3% with a general secondary education, 26.5% with a vocational secondary education, 8.5% with an incomplete higher education, and 50.1% with completed higher education. The statistics show that 32.8% of Latvian respondents lived in the capital city of Latvia, 37.2% of respondents lived in other cities of Latvia, and 30% of respondents lived in the countryside. According to the survey, the respondents’ personal incomes from the previous month, including all income, wages, scholarships, benefits, pensions, etc., were divided as follows: 4.4% of respondents did not have a personal income, 0.9% earned up to EUR 100, 21.5% earned between EUR 101 and 700, 28.2% earned between EUR 701 and 1400, 15.7% earned between EUR 1401 and 2000, 12.1% earn over EUR 2000, 3.6% had difficulty answering this question, and 13.6% did not respond.

To address RQ2—how factors such as education, income, and place of residence influence consumers’ attitudes towards tourism and agricultural products, particularly in the context of greenwashing risks—one of the key interview questions was whether respondents would be willing to pay more for products that support the competitiveness of local agricultural producers. According to the SPSS 27 analysis of this question, the chi-square table data show that Pearson’s chi-square is 67.002, df = 46, p = 0.023, likelihood ratio is 70.935, df = 46, p = 0.011, linear-by-linear association is 2.903, and p = 0.088. This indicates that there is a statistically significant relationship between income level and willingness to pay more for local products (p = 0.023 for Pearson’s chi-square).

In this respect, Figure 2 shows convincing support for paying more for locally produced agricultural goods: about 69% of respondents were in favour, 29% opposed, and only a small share were undecided. Support for local producers remained strong, even among individuals with very low or no income, though uncertainty was higher in these groups. Support was most divided among lower-middle incomes (EUR 301–600), where cost concerns seemed stronger and opposition reached its highest point. By contrast, middle and upper-middle income groups expressed the strongest willingness to pay more, especially at EUR 701–800 (80% yes) and EUR 1101–1200 (nearly 96% yes). Higher-income households, including those earning over EUR 2000, also showed consistently strong support, close to the national average.

In assessing survey results, it is common to use Pearson’s chi-square test when the survey data involve categorical variables, as the test helps to identify whether there is a statistically significant association between two or more categorical factors. In this study, chi-square was used to assess whether the distribution of consumer responses differed significantly between different groups of consumers. The obtained Pearson’s chi-square value is 67.002 with 46 degrees of freedom, and the p-value is 0.023. Since the p-value is below the conventional 0.05 threshold, this result indicates a statistically significant association between income and willingness to pay more for local agricultural products. Income was chosen as the focal variable because it is directly linked to the economic capacity of consumers to pay more for food products.

In general, the survey answers indicate a broad and consistent willingness among Latvian consumers to pay more for locally produced agricultural goods, regardless of income level. It is important to admit that enthusiasm is strongest among middle and upper-middle income groups, although support remains in the majority across all categories. Statistical testing confirms a significant link between income and willingness to pay.

Figure 3 shows very strong support for values tied to local agriculture. More than 92% favour environmentally friendly production, and almost everyone (95%) sees supporting rural enterprises as important. Honesty in communication and ethical principles such as fairness and transparency also rank extremely high, with around 97–98% agreement. Taste and health are nearly unanimous priorities, valued by virtually all respondents. Views are more mixed on certain aspects. About three-quarters support eco-friendly packaging and respect for local traditions, though roughly a quarter disagree. Price matters to most (about 76%), but nearly one in four say it does not. The only clear rejection appears with digital advertising, where six in ten respondents deny that it influences their choices.

In short, consumers place the greatest weight on health, honesty, ethics, and rural support, while environmental concerns and cultural values are also important but more debated. Advertising, however, is widely dismissed as a factor in their decisions. While environmental sustainability is clearly important to most consumers, views are more mixed when it comes to concepts like eco-friendly packaging and the role of local traditions. Thus, people seem to value them, but not as strongly as other factors.

Interestingly, digital advertising does not seem to be important in shaping consumer choices. Further, although price still matters, it is not the deciding factor for many respondents. Instead, people are increasingly making decisions based on such values as honesty, ethics, and support for rural communities rather than just looking for the lowest price.

Figure 4 shows how people evaluate the trustworthiness of different types of sustainability information related to rural tourism. Among the 1004 respondents, official certificates issued by authorities stand out as the most convincing proof, with over 66% rating them highly.

Clear sustainability details and easy-to-understand explanations on websites are also viewed as trustworthy, although many respondents view them as only partly convincing. Similarly, independent consumer reviews and information from reliable sources (ministries or NGOs) are positively perceived by more than half of respondents, though slightly less than certificates.

Accordingly, the results suggest that while people do appreciate transparency on websites and peer reviews, trust is strongest when information comes from recognized institutions.

In addressing RQ2—how do Latvian consumers perceive the sustainability of rural tourism services and locally produced agricultural good—the authors obtained evidence of a clear shift in consumer attitudes towards both rural tourism and locally produced food. Their decisions are increasingly shaped not just by cost or convenience, but by a deeper set of values, particularly around product quality, ethical business conduct, and environmental responsibility. Good taste, health benefits, and honest, straightforward communication continue to rank among the most important factors when choosing what to buy.

At the same time, there is a growing sense of caution. While sustainability is widely supported, especially when it directly benefits rural communities, many consumers remain hesitant to fully trust marketing messages, especially those delivered through digital channels. This hesitation reflects broader concerns about greenwashing, as people have become more aware of businesses overstating or misrepresenting their environmental efforts. As a result, buyers are looking for more than just buzzwords: they want clarity, proof, and consistency.

The survey also highlighted the level of trust placed in official certifications. When sustainability claims are backed by recognized authorities, consumers are far more likely to believe them. Independent reviews, reliable institutional sources, and clear information on company websites also help build confidence. It is clear that trust needs to be earned, not assumed.

Overall, Latvian consumers are ready to support sustainable local businesses, yet they are not doing it blindly. They expect transparency, integrity, and clear evidence behind every eco-claim. For rural tourism operators and local food producers, this means that being sustainable is not enough on its own.

To truly connect with today’s more discerning audience, local businesses must actively communicate their values in ways that feel credible and authentic, thus avoiding vague claims that could be mistaken for greenwashing, and instead building real trust through openness and honesty [39]. As highlighted in the Draghi Report on European competitiveness [40], ensuring transparency and credibility in sustainability efforts is significant both for public trust and broader economic strategies that enhance genuine green investment in agriculture, rural development, and linked sub-industries. Consequently, ensuring real trust through openness and honesty is a precondition for meeting sustainability commitments today.

4. Conclusions

Referring to the answers obtained for RQ1, which aimed to analyse greenwashing issues and discourses in academic literature, this study shows that research on greenwashing is growing across disciplines but remains fragmented. In order to identify the main research trends, challenges, and current themes surrounding the concept of “greenwashing”, the authors conducted an in-depth comprehensive and multi-dimensional analysis of the existing literature on green claims across diverse economic sectors and national contexts. By combining bibliometric mapping with systematic review techniques and thematic analysis, the authors revealed how the concept has evolved over time, both in definition and scope. The results show that greenwashing is no longer viewed solely as a marketing issue, as it is increasingly being examined through ethical, regulatory, and psychological lenses as well. Several recurring themes emerged, including consumer trust, corporate accountability, and the role of certification schemes. At the same time, the authors identified notable gaps, particularly around the long-term impact of greenwashing on consumer behaviour and the effectiveness of policy measures in curbing misleading sustainability claims. These findings point to the need for more interdisciplinary work and context-specific studies, especially in underrepresented regions such as Eastern Europe.

Referring to the answers obtained for RQ2 (influence of education, income, and place of residence), the survey results confirm that income strongly affects willingness to pay more for local products, while education and residence shape the ability to detect misleading claims and determine which information sources are trusted. Official certifications and transparent communication were considered particularly convincing, whereas digital advertising and vague marketing messages were often viewed with scepticism. This cautious optimism reflects a public that is increasingly conscious of environmental issues. The quantitative analysis of the nationwide survey data identified clear differences in how various Latvian consumer groups interpret sustainability communication. Respondents with higher levels of education tended to be more critical and better equipped to identify inconsistencies or signs of greenwashing. Income also played a role. Namely, those with greater financial stability were more likely to prioritize environmental values over price considerations. Urban respondents in particular showed greater awareness of sustainability narratives, possibly due to increased exposure to media and sustainability discourse. In contrast, rural residents were often more supportive of local products but tended to rely on personal experience and trust in producers rather than formal eco-labels or digital communication. Overall, the findings suggest that while many Latvian consumers are open to supporting sustainable initiatives, their ability to recognize greenwashing depends strongly on their background and access to information.

Referring to the answers obtained for RQ3 (Latvian consumer perceptions of sustainability), consumers express strong support for sustainable rural tourism and local food, valuing health, taste, honesty, and ethics. However, their trust depends on credible communication, with official certificates trusted most and digital advertising largely dismissed.

The current research is limited by its reliance on English-language Scopus publications and a Latvian-only survey sample, which might not fully reflect consumer behaviour. It would be advisable for future studies to expand the scope geographically, including longitudinal data, and test consumer behaviour in real-life purchasing situations.