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Article

Effects of Plastic Mulch Residue on Soil Fungal Communities in Cotton

by
Wenyue Song
1,
Hongqi Wu
1,2,
Zequn Xiang
1,
Yanmin Fan
1,2,*,
Shuaishuai Wang
1 and
Jia Guo
1
1
College of Resources and Environment, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
2
Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Soil and Plant Ecological Processes, Urumqi 830052, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2024, 14(8), 1365; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081365
Submission received: 12 July 2024 / Revised: 10 August 2024 / Accepted: 14 August 2024 / Published: 15 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)
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Abstract

:
Plastic mulch plays a crucial role in agricultural production in arid and semi-arid regions, positively impacting crop yields, salt suppression, and seedling protection. However, as the usage of plastic mulch extends over time, residue accumulation becomes a significant issue in these regions. To clarify the effects of plastic mulch residue on soil fungi, this study focused on three typical cotton-growing areas in Xinjiang. Using high-throughput sequencing technology, the study analyzed the changes in the fungal community structure and diversity in rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soils across 27 cotton fields under three different levels of plastic mulch residue: 0–75 kg/ha, 75–150 kg/ha, and 150–225 kg/ha. The results indicated that Ascomycota and Basidiomycota were the dominant fungal phyla across all treatments. Increasing levels of plastic mulch residue reduced the fungal richness in the soil, with a greater effects observed on rhizosphere fungi compared to bulk soil fungi. The α-diversity of cotton rhizosphere fungi showed an increasing trend, followed by a decrease with increasing plastic mulch residue, in Aksu and Bazhou, peaking at 75–150 kg/ha. Conversely, in Changji, the α-diversity decreased with increasing plastic mulch residue. The α-diversity of non-rhizosphere fungi associated with cotton decreased with increasing plastic mulch residue. Plastic mulch residue significantly altered the soil fungal α-diversity and had a greater effects on rhizosphere fungi. Different levels of plastic mulch residue had varying effects on the β-diversity of rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere fungi, significantly influencing rhizosphere fungi in Aksu and Bazhou and non-rhizosphere fungi in Changji and Bazhou. Overall, different levels of plastic mulch residue exerted varying degrees of influence on the community composition and diversity of soil fungi associated with cotton, potentially reducing the fungal richness and altering the community structure with increasing residue levels.

1. Introduction

Plastic mulch technology plays a significant role in agricultural development in the arid and semi-arid regions of China [1]. Introduced in the late 1970s, this technology involves the widespread use of polyethylene films for cultivation, primarily due to their benefits such as warming the soil, conserving water, increasing yields, and suppressing weed growth [2]. It has been extensively adopted to meet the increasing global demand for plant production [3,4], making China the largest user of plastic mulch technology globally [5]. However, these films degrade slowly under natural conditions, leading to the substantial accumulation of plastic residues in agricultural soils and causing plastic pollution [6]. This accumulation affects soil moisture and aeration, thereby disrupting the balance of the soil microecology.
Soil microorganisms are integral components of ecosystems, playing crucial roles in driving various ecosystem functions, including enhancing plant productivity and regulating soil nutrient cycling and energy flows [7,8]. Meanwhile, soil fungi, as essential constituents of agricultural ecosystems, play key roles in organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling [9,10]. However, soil fungi are sensitive to anthropogenic disturbances, and different management practices significantly influence the soil microbial community structure and diversity [11]. Most studies have focused on the effects of plastic mulch residue on soil microorganisms. Xing et al. [12] demonstrated that long-term mulching reduces the soil microbial diversity. Liu et al. [13] found that plastic film mulching alters the symbiotic functions of soil fungi, while Mao et al. [14] observed significant impacts on the soil fungal community composition due to mulching. Additionally, Huang et al. [15] discovered that mulching affects the soil bacterial community structure, diversity, and richness.
Nomura et al. [16] demonstrated that the primary source of microplastics in agricultural landscapes is residual plastic mulch. Amandine et al. [17] showed the negative impacts of microplastics on microbial functions and health. Huang Y. [18] found that soils containing microplastics had significantly lower diversity indices compared to control soils. Haifeng et al. [19] indicated that microplastics can reduce the microbial abundance and influence the microbial diversity and community richness, with Wang et al. [20] suggesting that microplastics can enhance the microbial community turnover rates. Xu et al. [21] found that microplastics increased the ACE, Chao1, and Shannon indices, altering the soil microbial community composition. Huang [22] discovered that different levels of plastic mulch residue had no significant short-term effects on soil microbial diversity.
Agricultural plastic mulch is a crucial modern agricultural material that enhances crop growth and productivity [23]. Soil fungi, as essential functional components of soil biota, play pivotal roles in soil nutrient cycling and energy flows [24,25], enhancing plants’ resistance to pests and diseases [26], and promoting plant growth and productivity [27]. However, residues from plastic mulch may alter the soil temperature and moisture, thereby impacting fungal growth and diversity [11]. Additionally, plastics can release chemical substances such as additives or degradation products that negatively affect fungal physiological activities. Understanding the effects of plastic residues on fungal communities can allow us to better assess their potential threats to soil ecosystem functions. Currently, most studies are based on pot or field simulation experiments, while long-term residue from plastic mulch in the field affects soil environments and crop growth, inevitably influencing soil microorganisms. However, research in this area is limited. Therefore, to promote healthy cotton production, it is crucial to thoroughly understand the effects of varying levels of plastic mulch residue on the structure and function of crop rhizosphere fungal communities.
Xinjiang, located deep within the Eurasian continent, experiences a temperate continental climate characterized by scarce precipitation and strong evaporation rates. Consequently, agricultural plastic mulch has become an indispensable input in agricultural production. Cotton, the largest distinctive pillar industry in Xinjiang, relies heavily on mulching, with a planting area reaching 2.54 million hectares, accounting for 83.2% of the national cotton planting area [28]. Xinjiang consistently leads the country in cotton production, contributing over 90% of the national output [29]. Firstly, in Xinjiang, the areas with significant cotton mulch cultivation include Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, and Aksu Prefecture, with respective planting areas of 154,690 ha, 212,040 ha, and 503,590 ha [30]. Secondly, according to research by Sun Chen et al. [31], the average residual plastic mulch amounts in the Changji, Bayingolin, and Aksu regions rank among the top three within their respective prefectures, at 115.91 kg/ha, 105.04 kg/ha, and 145.76 kg/ha. These figures are representative of plastic mulch residues across these regions. Lastly, Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture is located in the northern part, Aksu Prefecture in the southern part, and Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture in the southeast of Xinjiang, representing a diverse geographical spread within Xinjiang. In these regions, cotton planting involves mechanical operations for both mulch covering and residue recovery, thereby excluding the interference of manual operations.
This study focuses on the soil fungal communities associated with cotton, employing high-throughput sequencing to investigate their responses to plastic mulch residue levels. The aim is to explore the effects of different levels of mulch residue on the rhizospheric and non-rhizospheric fungal communities of cotton, including their structural characteristics. This research seeks to elucidate the response patterns of soil fungal communities to plastic mulch residue, providing data support and a theoretical basis for an understanding of the effects of mulch residue on soil ecological environments in arid regions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area Overview

This study encompasses three study areas: the Aksu region, Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture (referred to as Bayingol Prefecture), and Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture (referred to as Changji Prefecture). The Aksu region is situated in the northwest of the Tarim Basin, in the southern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains in Xinjiang (39°30′–42°41′ N, 78°03′–84°07′ E). The region has a warm temperate arid climate with significant continental climate characteristics. Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture (Bayingol Prefecture), located in the southeastern part of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (35°38′–43°36′ N, 82°38′–93°45′ E), features a temperate continental climate with both temperate and warm temperate characteristics. Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture (Changji Prefecture) is positioned at the southeastern edge of the Junggar Basin, in the northern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains (43°20′–45°00′ N, 85°17′–91°32′ E). Its climate is classified as temperate continental, characterized by cold winters, hot summers, significant diurnal temperature variations, and intense evaporation.

2.2. Experimental Design and Sample Collection

Based on plastic mulch residue monitoring data from Xinjiang’s agricultural fields between 2020 and 2022, and incorporating the research findings of Liu Chaoji [32] and Li Huijun [33], along with data from the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps Academy, the Chinese Society for Environmental Sciences annual conference, Xinjiang Agricultural University, and previous studies, plastic mulch residue in cotton fields was classified into three levels: light pollution for residues less than 75 kg/hm2; moderate pollution for residues between 75 and 150 kg/hm2; and heavy pollution for residues greater than 150 kg/hm2. The average plastic mulch residue levels for cotton fields in Aksu, Bazhou, and Changji Prefecture over three years were classified as moderate, heavy, and moderate pollution, respectively. Consequently, this study adopts three residue levels: 0–75 kg/ha, 75–150 kg/ha, and 150–225 kg/ha. Statistical analysis was conducted on locations where the plastic film residue remained relatively stable at these levels over three consecutive years. In 2023, sampling points in the cotton fields were selected within these three residue levels for the collection of soil microbial samples.
Through indoor summary analysis combined with field investigation, cotton fields with consistent terrain and crop growth and similar levels of plastic residue were selected as sampling sites. In each region, three plots at each plastic residue level were chosen. During the 2023 harvest season, five sampling points were reasonably selected in each plot using a grid method. Plants within a 1 m2 area at each sampling point were dug out with their roots intact. After shaking off the surrounding soil from the root systems, the plants were placed in sterilized stainless steel trays. The soil adhered to the plant roots, collected using a brush, was designated as rhizosphere soil. The soils from the five sampling points were then mixed thoroughly, and 10 g of the mixed soil was collected for the determination of the rhizosphere fungal populations. At the same sampling points, soil that was not adhered to the root surfaces was collected as non-rhizosphere soil. Since microorganisms in surface soil are more active, soil from the 0–30 cm layer within the 1 m2 area was excavated and mixed thoroughly, and 10 g of this soil was collected for the determination of the non-rhizosphere fungal populations. The samples (Table 1) were transported back to the laboratory on dry ice and stored at −80 °C.

2.3. Sample Analysis and Data Processing

2.3.1. Sample Analysis

In recent years, rapid advancements in high-throughput sequencing technologies and data analysis methods have significantly propelled the field of fungal community ecology, particularly through studies utilizing the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene [34]. Increasingly, high-throughput sequencing is employed to identify fungi and analyze the fungal community structure under phylogenetic contexts, making it the predominant method in studying the composition and diversity of environmental microbial communities. This technology enables the identification and relative quantification of fungal communities, providing new insights into fungal community ecology. Currently, it is becoming the primary tool for the assessment of plant-associated endophytes, pathogens, mycorrhizal symbionts, and free-living saprotrophic fungi communities. Therefore, high-throughput sequencing can be applied to analyze the effects of plastic mulch residues on fungal communities, composition, diversity, and metabolic functions.
The ITS gene, 18S rRNA gene, or specific functional genes of fungi can be used for microbial classification and phylogenetic research [35,36,37]. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region consists of two segments, ITS1 and ITS2. ITS1 is located between the 18S and 5.8S genes of eukaryotes, while ITS2 is situated between the 5.8S and 28S genes [38]. Compared to 18S rRNA genes (with an evolution rate approximately 10 times slower than that of the ITS) and 28S rRNA genes, the ITS region exhibits higher overall variability in fungi. This greater variability leads to larger sequence differences between species, providing more detailed classification information. Therefore, the ITS has been widely applied as a molecular marker in fungal systematics and classification. This study relies primarily on ITS sequences from the Unified System for DNA-Based Fungal Species (UNITE) database, the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD) database, and GenBank. Data were obtained using amplicon sequencing on the Illumina sequencing platform [39]. This approach offers advantages such as high throughput and accuracy, making it the predominant method in studying the composition and diversity of environmental microbial communities [40].

2.3.2. Data Processing

To facilitate the analysis of species composition and diversity information in research samples, sequences need to be denoised and chimeras removed using the Deblur algorithm [41], resulting in the generation of ASV (Amplicon Sequence Variant) feature tables and feature sequences.To obtain taxonomic information for each ASV, the representative sequences of ASVs were annotated using the Naive Bayes method. Evolutionary trees were constructed based on the nucleotide differences and sequence characteristics, selecting appropriate evolutionary models and reconstruction methods.

3. Results

3.1. Effects of Different Residue Levels on Soil Fungal Community Composition

Using high-throughput sequencing, this experiment obtained 1,889,119 effective sequences across all samples, identifying 8797 operational taxonomic units (OTUs). The sample with the highest number of identified OTUs contained 1589 units (Figure 1, Venn diagram). The proportion of shared OTUs among the three study areas ranged from 14.98% to 5.98%, indicating a difference of 9%. Similarly, unique OTUs varied from 44.99% to 27.37%, showing a difference of 17.62%. When the residue levels reached 150–225 kg/ha, there was a decline in the total OTUs, with the largest decrease observed in rhizosphere microbiota in Aksu, decreasing by 365 OTUs. The smallest decrease occurred in non-rhizosphere microbiota in Changji, with a decrease of 75 OTUs. These findings suggest that the accumulation of residue films leads to a reduction in the species richness of both rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soil fungal communities. Furthermore, the effect of the residue level on the fungal community species richness in the rhizosphere was greater than that in the non-rhizosphere. According to Figure 2, the rarefaction curves show that as the sequencing depth increases, the curve gradually flattens out after reaching 5000 sequences. This indicates that the sequencing depth has sufficiently covered most species present in the samples, with further data acquisition likely only revealing low-abundance species.
According to Figure 3, at the phylum level, the ten phyla with relatively high relative abundance are Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, GS01, Mucoromycota, Chytridiomycota, Mortierellomycota, Glomeromycota, Rozellomycota, Zoopagomycota, and Blastocladiomycota. Among these, the dominant phyla (>0.001) include Ascomycota (0.525~0.942), Basidiomycota (0.018~0.208), and GS01 (0.001~0.010). These fungal phyla are all saprophytic fungi and important decomposers in soil. In the rhizosphere soil fungi of cotton in the Aksu region, the relative abundance of Ascomycota showed a decreasing trend with increasing residue film levels, with ARM1 higher than ARM3; other phyla outside the top 10 increased in relative abundance. In the cotton rhizosphere soil of Bazhou, the relative abundance of Ascomycota showed an increasing trend with the residue film levels initially, followed by a decrease, with BRM3 higher than BRM1. In the rhizosphere soil of Changji, the relative abundance of Ascomycota increased with the residue film levels, with CRM3 higher than CRM2 and CRM1. In the non-rhizosphere fungal community, the relative abundance of Ascomycota initially increased and then decreased with the residue film levels, with ANRM1 lower than ANRM2 and ANRM3; BNRM2 higher than BNRM1 and BNRM3; and CNRM2 higher than CNRM1 and CNRM3. The trend for Basidiomycota showed an initial increase followed by a decrease, except for Changji, where it showed an initial decrease followed by an increase, with BRM3 higher than BRM1 and BRM2 in relative abundance. In the non-rhizosphere soil, Basidiomycota showed an increasing trend with the residue film levels. The phylum GS01 in the rhizosphere soil of cotton showed an initial increase followed by a decrease with the residue film levels in Aksu and Bazhou, while the trend was the opposite in Changji; non-rhizosphere GS01 showed an increasing trend in Bazhou and Changji, consistent with the rhizosphere GS01 trends in Aksu. These results indicate that the relative abundance of fungal phyla in the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soils of cotton responds differently to varying residue film levels at the phylum level.
Selected from the top 50 genera in the sequence for analysis in Figure 4, it is noted that Cladosporium and Alternaria exhibit relatively high average abundance across all samples. Scopulariopsis shows higher abundance in sample CNRM3, Neonectria in sample BNRM3, and Fusariella in sample ARM1. Cladorrhinum, classified under the saprotrophic functional group of fungi, was not detected in samples with high levels of plastic mulch residue, indicating that increased residue levels suppress the growth of this genus. Trichoderma in the rhizospheric soil of Aksu initially increased and then decreased, while, in non-rhizospheric soil, this trend was reversed. In Bazhou and Changji, both rhizospheric and non-rhizospheric soils showed an increase in Trichoderma abundance with increasing plastic mulch residue, suggesting that higher residue levels favor the survival of this genus. Fusarium exhibited relatively lower relative abundance at plastic mulch residue levels of 150–225 kg/ha compared to 0–75 kg/ha, indicating that increasing residue levels inhibit the growth of this genus. Acremonium decreased with increasing plastic mulch residue in rhizospheric fungi but showed the opposite trend in non-rhizospheric fungal communities, illustrating the differential effects of plastic mulch residue on the rhizospheric and non-rhizospheric fungal composition.

3.2. Effects of Different Levels of Plastic Mulch Residue on Soil Fungal Alpha Diversity

Based on the statistical analysis of the OTUs, the α-diversity indices were calculated, including the Chao1 and Abundance-Based Coverage Estimator (ACE) as species richness estimators and the Shannon and Simpson indices as measures of species diversity. According to Figure 5, it was observed that, in the Aksu and Bazhou regions, cotton rhizospheric fungal communities exhibited the highest diversity at plastic mulch residue levels of 75–150 kg/ha. As the residue levels increased, there was a trend of an initial increase followed by a decrease in community richness and diversity. Conversely, in the Changji region, the richness and diversity of the cotton rhizosphere fungal communities peaked at residue levels of 0–75 kg/ha, with the richness decreasing as the residue levels increased and the diversity showing a trend of an initial decrease followed by an increase. In the non-rhizosphere fungal community, the diversity was the highest at residue levels of 0–75 kg/ha, with the richness decreasing as the residue levels increased. Significant differences in the α-diversity levels were evident across the residue levels (p < 0.01). In both the Bazhou and Changji regions, the rhizospheric fungal richness was lower than the non-rhizospheric fungal richness across the different residue levels, whereas, in the Aksu region, the rhizospheric fungal richness and evenness exceeded those of non-rhizospheric fungi. The Chao1 index ranged from 110 to 395 for all rhizospheric samples and 134 to 394 for non-rhizospheric samples. The ACE indices ranged from 111 to 397 for rhizospheric samples and 134 to 393 for non-rhizospheric samples. The Shannon indices varied from 2.07 to 3.59 for rhizospheric samples and 1.99 to 3.69 for non-rhizospheric samples, while the Simpson indices ranged from 0.73 to 0.90 for rhizospheric samples and 0.71 to 0.94 for non-rhizospheric samples. These results indicate that increasing levels of plastic mulch residue locally reduce the soil fungal α-diversity. Moreover, the effects of the residue on the rhizospheric fungal α-diversity surpass those on non-rhizospheric fungi.

3.3. Effects of Different Residual Mulch Levels on Soil Fungal Beta Diversity

In this study, the Bray–Curtis distance was used to perform principal coordinate analysis (NMDS) on the soil fungal communities, and similarity analysis was used to test for inter-group differences. The principal coordinate analysis revealed differences between the microbial communities. As shown in Figure 6a, there is a clear spatial distribution of the Bray–Curtis distances among the cotton rhizosphere fungal communities. In Aksu and Bazhou, the distribution patterns of the rhizosphere fungal community structures show significant differentiation, whereas, in Changji, the spatial differentiation of the rhizosphere fungal communities is not pronounced at mulch residue levels of 75–150 kg/hm2 and 150–225 kg/hm2. Additionally, the results of the inter-group difference testing based on the Bray–Curtis distance similarity analysis indicate that the rhizosphere fungal community structures in Aksu and Bazhou exhibit significant differences at different mulch residue levels (p < 0.01), while, in Changji, differences are observed in the rhizosphere fungal community structures at different mulch residue levels (p < 0.05). As shown in Figure 6b, the non-rhizosphere fungal community structures in Bazhou show clear separation, while, in Aksu, the non-rhizosphere fungal communities are similar at mulch residue levels of 75–150 kg/hm2 and 150–225 kg/hm2. In Changji, the non-rhizosphere fungal communities are similar at mulch residue levels of 0–75 kg/hm2 and 75–150 kg/hm2. The results of the inter-group difference testing based on the Bray–Curtis distance similarity analysis show that the non-rhizosphere fungal community structures in Aksu exhibit differences at different mulch residue levels (p < 0.05), and significant differences are observed in Bazhou and Changji (p < 0.01). Analyzing the fungal community structures under different mulch residue levels across different regions reveals differences, indicating that both rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere fungi in cotton respond to varying amounts of residual mulch and these responses vary by region.

4. Discussion

Plastic mulch residue has significant advantages, such as drought resistance, water conservation, increased temperatures, and moisture retention. However, the difficulty in degradation and the improper disposal of plastic mulch residue can alter the soil physicochemical properties, decrease the soil nutrient content, and disrupt the soil structure’s integrity [42,43]. Additionally, the presence of residual plastic mulch increases the soil water evaporation rates [44], clogs the soil pores, impedes water infiltration [45], and affects the migration of water and nutrients [46,47]. This practice also hinders agricultural machinery operations, obstructs water and nutrient transport, threatens sustainable agricultural development, and suppresses microbial growth and reproduction. It further impacts the soil microbial diversity, composition, and functional microbial community dynamics. Xinjiang is one of the regions that is severely affected by plastic mulch residual pollution [48] and represents various areas facing this issue. Currently, research on plastic mulch residual pollution primarily focuses on its effects on the soil structure and crop growth, with limited studies on soil microorganisms. This study investigates the effects of different levels of plastic mulch residues on soil fungi, revealing that varying amounts of residual plastic mulch have different effects on the soil fungal communities and diversity.
This study reveals that, in Aksu Prefecture, the richness and diversity of rhizosphere fungi are greater than those in non-rhizosphere soil, whereas, in Bazhou and Changji Prefecture, the richness and diversity of rhizosphere fungi are lower than those in non-rhizosphere soil. Furthermore, in Aksu Prefecture, the number of identified OTUs in the fungal community species composition of the rhizosphere soil exceeds that in the non-rhizosphere soil, whereas, in Bazhou and Changji Prefecture, the number of identified OTUs in the fungal community species composition of the rhizosphere soil is smaller than that in the non-rhizosphere soil. Finally, the fungal community compositions in the rhizosphere soil are generally more complex and diverse, whereas non-rhizosphere soil may exhibit a more uniform or relatively stable fungal community structure. Rhizosphere soil fungi are dominated by saprotrophic fungi, nutritional fungi, and other undefined phyla, whereas non-rhizosphere soil fungi are mainly composed of saprotrophic and nutritional fungi. Different levels of plastic mulch residue lead to varying trends in the relative abundance of the fungal composition, total species numbers, α-diversity, and fungal community structure across the cotton fields in the three regions. Specifically, Aksu Prefecture and Bazhou exhibit similar trends in their rhizosphere fungal changes, while Bazhou and Changji show similar trends in their non-rhizosphere fungal changes.
The study found that the dominant fungal phyla in the agricultural field fungal communities included Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, consistent with the findings of Xing et al. [12]. As decomposers of complex compounds, these phyla play crucial roles in decomposing plant residues and straw remnants [49,50]. Wang et al. [51] observed a significant relationship between the soil microbial community diversity and levels of plastic mulch residue, which aligns with the results of this study. Increasing levels of plastic mulch residue markedly altered the soil fungal α-diversity. Specifically, in the Aksu region and Bazhou, the rhizospheric fungal α-diversity initially increased and then decreased with increasing residue levels, while, in Changji, the non-rhizospheric fungal α-diversity showed an initial decrease followed by an increase. These findings differ from those of Wang et al. [51] but indicate that, at residue levels of 150–225 kg/ha, the soil fungal α-diversity was consistently lower compared to levels of 0–75 kg/ha, suggesting the need for further investigation.
The structure of the fungal community undergoes significant changes due to the presence of residual plastic films [52], with increasing levels of film residue leading to a decrease in the relative abundance of nutritional functional groups such as Cladorrhinum. Acremonium, as a microbial growth inhibitor, has the ability to suppress the growth and reproduction of soil pathogens [53]. However, this study found that increased film residues inhibited the growth of this fungal genus in rhizospheric soil. Zhou et al. [54] observed a significant reduction in community diversity and alterations in the community structure caused by PBAT microplastics, primarily enriching the potential pathogen Tetracladium. This study also detected the aggregation of the Tetracladium genus, which exhibited a general increasing trend with rising film residue levels. As a known plant pathogen, the genus Fusarium can induce diseases such as wilt [55] and root rot [56]. In this study, the Fusarium genus content was relatively high in all samples, suggesting that residual film affects soil aeration. Guo et al. [57] found that in poorly aerated soil, the Fusarium genus microbes are likely to thrive. As decomposers in the soil, Ascomycota play a critical role in the degradation of recalcitrant substances, and the residual film entering the soil provides new substrates for Ascomycota [58], thereby increasing the relative abundance of this phylum.
By delving into the impact of plastic film residues on the soil fungal community composition and diversity, this study aims to better understand the damage caused by poor agricultural practices to soil ecosystem stability and health. This knowledge not only helps to identify the root causes of problems but also provides a scientific basis for the development and promotion of sustainable agricultural management strategies. However, the study utilized field sampling and laboratory analysis methods, which introduce limitations, including uncontrollable climate factors, soil heterogeneity, and sampling technique constraints. Weather variations may lead to different moisture and temperature conditions, affecting soil microorganisms, while varying soil properties across locations can impact the microbial community structure. The inadequate consideration of physical and chemical properties such as the soil texture, bulk density, and moisture content may affect the results. The dispersion of the sampling sites introduces a time span that could impact the accuracy and comparability of the findings. Future research will address these limitations and further investigate the effects of plastic film residue on fungal community functional prediction, ecological networks, and differential species, as well as analyzing changes and interactions among different fungal phyla. Strengthening the comprehensiveness of the factors affecting soil microorganisms is also necessary. Based on the findings of this study, promoting the use of biodegradable films or optimizing plastic film usage, increasing film recycling efforts, and employing a combination of mechanical and manual collection methods can help to mitigate the negative impact on soil microorganisms, thereby improving agricultural productivity and soil ecosystem health in areas affected by plastic film residues.

5. Conclusions

This study selected residual plastic film as the focal point and utilized high-throughput sequencing technology to analyze the effects of varying levels of film residue on the soil fungal community structure. The research indicated that Ascomycota and Basidiomycota were the dominant fungal phyla across the treatments. Increasing film residue levels were found to decrease the fungal richness in the soil, with a greater effect on rhizospheric fungi compared to non-rhizospheric fungi. The α-diversity of cotton rhizospheric fungi showed an initial increase followed by a decrease with increasing film residue levels in the Aksu and Bazhou regions, peaking at residue levels of 75–150 kg/hm2. Conversely, in the Changji region, the α-diversity decreased with increasing film residue levels. The α-diversity of non-rhizospheric fungi associated with cotton decreased with increasing film residue levels. Film residues significantly altered the soil fungal α-diversity, particularly affecting rhizospheric fungi. Different levels of film residue had varying effects on the β-diversity of rhizospheric and non-rhizospheric fungi, with significant effects observed in the Aksu and Bazhou regions for rhizospheric fungi and in the Changji and Bazhou regions for non-rhizospheric fungi.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.S., H.W. and Y.F.; Methodology, W.S.; Software, Z.X.; Investigation, W.S., H.W., Z.X., S.W. and J.G.; Data curation, W.S. and H.W.; Writing—original draft, W.S. and Z.X.; Writing—review & editing, Y.F.; Project administration, Y.F.; Funding acquisition, Y.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the 2023 National Key Research and Development Program “Integration and Demonstration of Technical Models for Soil Improvement and Capacity Enhancement in Northwest Saline Soil Area” (2023YFD1901503).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated for this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Agriculture 14 01365 g001
Figure 1. Venn diagrams of fungal OTUs in soil samples: (a) ARM, (b) BRM, (c) CRM, (d) ANRM, (e) BNRM, (f) CNRM.
Figure 1. Venn diagrams of fungal OTUs in soil samples: (a) ARM, (b) BRM, (c) CRM, (d) ANRM, (e) BNRM, (f) CNRM.
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Figure 2. Rarefaction curves of soil fungi under different residue film levels.
Figure 2. Rarefaction curves of soil fungi under different residue film levels.
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Figure 3. Relative abundance of soil fungal phyla under different residual film levels.
Figure 3. Relative abundance of soil fungal phyla under different residual film levels.
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Figure 4. Heat map of relative abundance of soil fungal genera across different levels of plastic mulch residue.
Figure 4. Heat map of relative abundance of soil fungal genera across different levels of plastic mulch residue.
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Figure 5. Boxplots illustrating soil fungal α-diversity indices under different levels of plastic mulch residue: (a) Chao1 index, (b) Shannon index, (c) Simpson index, (d) ACE index.
Figure 5. Boxplots illustrating soil fungal α-diversity indices under different levels of plastic mulch residue: (a) Chao1 index, (b) Shannon index, (c) Simpson index, (d) ACE index.
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Figure 6. NMDS plots of soil fungi based on Bray–Curtis distance matrix under different residual mulch levels (a) for rhizosphere fungi and (b) for non-rhizosphere fungi.
Figure 6. NMDS plots of soil fungi based on Bray–Curtis distance matrix under different residual mulch levels (a) for rhizosphere fungi and (b) for non-rhizosphere fungi.
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Table 1. Sampling point numbers in cotton fields in each study area.
Table 1. Sampling point numbers in cotton fields in each study area.
Residual Mulch AmountAksu RegionBayingolin Mongolian Autonomous PrefectureChangji Hui Autonomous Prefecture
Rhizosphere MicroorganismsNon-Rhizosphere MicroorganismsRhizosphere MicroorganismsNon-Rhizosphere MicroorganismsRhizosphere MicroorganismsNon-Rhizosphere Microorganisms
0–75 kg/haARM1ANRM1BRM1BNRM1CRM1CNRM1
75–150 kg/haARM2ANRM2BRM2BNRM2CRM2CNRM2
150–225 kg/haARM3ANRM3BRM3BNRM3CRM3CNRM3
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Song, W.; Wu, H.; Xiang, Z.; Fan, Y.; Wang, S.; Guo, J. Effects of Plastic Mulch Residue on Soil Fungal Communities in Cotton. Agriculture 2024, 14, 1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081365

AMA Style

Song W, Wu H, Xiang Z, Fan Y, Wang S, Guo J. Effects of Plastic Mulch Residue on Soil Fungal Communities in Cotton. Agriculture. 2024; 14(8):1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081365

Chicago/Turabian Style

Song, Wenyue, Hongqi Wu, Zequn Xiang, Yanmin Fan, Shuaishuai Wang, and Jia Guo. 2024. "Effects of Plastic Mulch Residue on Soil Fungal Communities in Cotton" Agriculture 14, no. 8: 1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081365

APA Style

Song, W., Wu, H., Xiang, Z., Fan, Y., Wang, S., & Guo, J. (2024). Effects of Plastic Mulch Residue on Soil Fungal Communities in Cotton. Agriculture, 14(8), 1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081365

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