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Article

Complex Profiling of Roasted Coffee Based on Origin and Production Scale

NCDO-INOE 2000, Research Institute for Analytical Instrumentation Subsidiary, 67 Donath Street, 400293 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2023, 13(6), 1146; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13061146
Submission received: 4 April 2023 / Revised: 24 April 2023 / Accepted: 24 May 2023 / Published: 29 May 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Product Quality and Safety)

Abstract

:
Coffee is one of the most popular beverages in the world due to its flavor, aroma, energy content, and complex nutritional profile. Many factors affect coffee’s characteristics, including its origin, storage, and roasting conditions. In this context, this study analyzes 100% Arabica medium-roasted coffee from six countries (El Salvador, Guatemala, Brazil, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, and Colombia) to assess its total polyphenols, individual polyphenols, total antioxidant capacity, hydro- and liposoluble vitamins, and PAHs using analytical techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), FT-NIR spectrometry, UV-VIS spectrophotometry, and photochemiluminescence. A total of 67 samples were collected from Romanian general and specialty stores. According to the study, coffee composition varies by origin, pedo-climatic characteristics, and store (general or specialty). The highest values for total polyphenols, polyphenols, and antioxidant capacity were obtained for Ethiopian coffee. The highest values of lipids and proteins were obtained in El Salvador and Guatemala, B1 and B2 in Brazil, B3 and B6 in Ethiopia, α- and β-tocopherol in Brazil, D. R. Congo, and Ethiopia. Specialty coffee had significantly higher levels than general store coffee for all investigated parameters. All coffee samples analyzed were within the maximum allowed levels for PAHs as set by regulations concerning food contaminants.

1. Introduction

Coffee is the third most consumed beverage around the world, topped only by water and tea. Although the Coffea species that produce the coffee beans are cultivated in 70 countries, coffee is consumed all around the world in many ways, both hot and cold [1]. In 2020, the EU imported 2.9 million tons of coffee, mainly from Brazil and Vietnam, accounting for about one-third of global consumption, making it the largest coffee market in the world [2,3,4]. The biggest coffee importing EU member states in 2021 were Germany, with 1.1 million tones, Italy, with 0.5 million tons, and Belgium, with 0.3 million tons [2,3]. The coffee is imported raw as green coffee and is roasted mainly in the EU countries mentioned above [2,3]. The highest per capita coffee consumption in the world is in Luxemburg, with an average of 11 kg per person per year [5]. The most imported types of coffee in 2018 were Arabica (60.5%), Brazilian Naturals (33.2%), and Colombian Milds (7.2%) [5]. Cities in Europe set the standard for coffee shops by offering customers high-end, sophisticated varieties. Consumer interest in how coffee is brewed, as well as where, how, and by whom the coffee was cultivated, has led to an increase in the market for specialty coffee. Therefore, it has become crucial for manufacturers of specialty coffee to explain the history of their product, including its origin and other environmental and social factors [5,6].
Coffee has many benefits for human health due to its complex nutritional profile and bioactive compound content [6,7,8,9]. Some of the health benefits of coffee, besides a boost in energy, include protection against type 2 diabetes, control of Parkinson’s disease symptoms, the prevention of cardiovascular diseases, the promotion of gut health, and lowered risk of cancer and depression [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. The main bioactive compounds of coffee are phenolic compounds (e.g., chlorogenic acids and its derivates), diterpenes (cafestol and kahweol), methylxanthines (e.g., caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline), nicotinic acid (vitamin B3), and trigonelline [6,14]. Yamagata assessed evidence suggesting that polyphenols found in coffee have a preventive action on metabolic syndrome-associated endothelial dysfunctions, which is a risk factor for atherosclerosis-associated cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. They concluded that the antioxidative effects of coffee components may be a basic feature of the prevention of metabolic syndrome [15]. Socała et al. evaluated in vitro and in vivo studies that demonstrated that coffee and its bioactive compounds exert neuroprotective effects, suggesting their preventive and/or therapeutic potential for different neurodegenerative conditions [16]. Many studies have been made on the correlation between bioactive compounds and roasting methods due to the fact that the physical, chemical, and taste properties of coffee are affected by temperature and roasting time [16,17,18,19,20,21]. A significant reduction in total chlorogenic acid content in coffee beans was observed during roasting [19,21]. A medium degree of roasting offers the optimal ratio of flavor and bioactive compound content with a minimum amount of acrylamide formation [18,19].
Roasted coffee bean characterization is a crucial element in ensuring coffee quality control and authentication. The process entails detecting and measuring various compounds present in coffee, including volatile and non-volatile compounds, sugars, acids, and phenolic compounds. The composition of roasted coffee beans is affected by multiple factors, such as the type of coffee, the conditions under which the roasting took place, and storage conditions. Since food adulteration is a current problem, many analytical techniques have been used for the development of coffee authentication and characterization methods. The most commonly used techniques are high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with mass spectral (MS) detection, Fourier transform near-infrared spectroscopy (FT-NIR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Recent studies have explored the use of HPLC with in-column derivatization, non-targeted HPLC-UV fingerprinting, and multivariate classification techniques to authenticate coffee samples and detect adulteration. Other studies have employed spectroscopy-based methods, including FT-NIR and handheld near-infrared spectroscopy, to evaluate the authenticity of coffee samples. Additionally, the use of chemometric approaches in conjunction with analytical techniques has been explored to improve the accuracy and efficiency of coffee authentication methods [22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32].
Our study focuses on medium-roasted 100% Arabica beans grown in six different countries: El Salvador, Guatemala, Brazil, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia and Colombia (the most common origin for beans used in Romania). The aim of the study is to analyze roasted coffee using different analytical techniques (HPLC with fluorescence and DAD detectors, FT-NIR spectrometry, photochemiluminescence, and UV-VIS spectrophotometry) to create a complex profile and to correlate the data with the origin and the particular climate where the coffee was cultivated. The difference between specialty coffee and coffee from the general store was also studied. This complementary study is based on consumer opinion regarding the differences between these coffees when it comes to price, organoleptic properties, and energy intake. Comparing specialty and commercial coffee samples can provide valuable insights into the coffee industry and help inform decisions related to production, marketing, and research.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

All solvents were HPLC grade from VWR (Darmstadt, Germany), with ultra-pure water obtained using the ULTRACLEAR UV UF EVOQUA Purification system (Pittsburgh, PA, USA), Florisil 200 mesh, fine powder from Supelco (Saint Louis, MO, USA), and the ACL Kit from Analitk Jena (Jena, Germany). All other standards used were from Sigma-Aldrich (Saint Louis, MO, USA).
In total, 67 medium-roasted samples of 100% Arabica coffee were collected from the Romanian market, general stores, and different specialized stores. (Table 1) Coffee from general stores was in individual 500 g packs of coffee beans and was stored in the store’s warehouse with an expiration date of 1 year from the pack date, while the specialty coffee was in individual 500 g packs of freshly roasted coffee beans and was stored in the store’s warehouse with an expiration date of 1 year from the roasting date.

2.2. Methods

2.2.1. Sample Extraction

Water extraction for total phenols and B vitamins analysis: 0.5 g of grinded sample was extracted with 1 mL of ultra-pure H2O for 20 min in an ultrasonic bath (SONOREX, Bandelin, RK 103H, Berlin, Germany) at room temperature. The samples were centrifuged (Microcentrifuge Hettich D-78532, Kirchlengern, Germany) at 11,000 rpm for 2 min and the supernatant was filtered through a 0.45 µm cellulose filter.
Methanol extraction for tocopherols analysis, polyphenols, and total antioxidant capacity: 0.5 g of grinded sample was extracted with 1 mL MeOH for 20 min in an ultrasonic bath at room temperature. The samples were centrifuged at 11,000 rpm for 2 min and the supernatant was filtered through a 0.45 µm cellulose filter.
Hexane extraction for PAH analysis: 10 g of grinded sample was extracted with 25 mL hexane for 20 min in an ultrasonic bath at room temperature. The samples were filtered through a 500 mg Florisil filter. The filtered extracts were concentrated to dryness under a light stream of nitrogen with an evaporator (RapidVap Vertex Dry Evaporator, Labconco, Kansas City, MO, USA) and brought back using 1 mL of acetonitrile.

2.2.2. Folin Ciocalteu Method for the Determination of the Total Polyphenolic Content

A method adapted from Bobková et al. was used [33]. A volume of 5 mL of distilled water, 1.5 mL of sodium carbonate solution (10%), 0.5 mL of sample, and 0.5 mL of Folin–Ciocalteu solution was pipetted into a 15 mL centrifuge tube. After the samples were kept for 45 min at room temperature in the dark, they were measured at a wavelength of 765 nm (Lambda 25, Perkin Elmer, Waltham, MA, USA). The results are expressed in gallic acid equivalents. The samples were obtained in triplicate and are expressed as mg GAE/g.

2.2.3. Total Antioxidant Capacity

After the methanol extraction, the samples were directly analyzed using the PHOTOCHEM antioxidant analyzer (Analytik Jena, Jena, Germania), and antioxidant capacity was measured using the ACL kit and is expressed in equivalent Trolox. The samples were obtained in triplicate and are expressed as mg/g Trolox equiv.

2.2.4. FT-NIR Analysis

A method adapted from Zhu et al. was used [34]. Using the Tango spectrometer from Bruker (Ettlingen, Germany), samples were measured directly without any extraction. Method parameters were as follows: measurement time, 64 s; resolution, 16 cm−1; scan type, rotating. The samples were obtained in triplicate and expressed as percentages.

2.2.5. B Vitamins Analysis

A slight variation of the method described by Grotzkyj Giorgi et al. was used for the quantification of B group vitamins in coffee [35]. A UHPLC Vanquisher H from Dionex (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Germering, Germany) with a DAD detector was used for the analysis of vitamins (Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Nicotinamide (B3), Pyridoxine (B6), Cyanocobalamin (B12)). The mobile phase was composed of ultra-pure H2O with 1% acetic acid and MeOH in a gradient with a flow rate of 0.3 mL/min. The chromatographic column used was an Accucore aQ (100 × 2.1 mm, 2.6 μm) from Thermo Fisher, which was kept at 25 °C. The injection volume was 8 µL and the detector was set at 270 nm. B vitamin content in samples was expressed in µg/g.

2.2.6. Tocopherols Analysis

The method was an adaptation of a method developed in a previous study. A Perkin Elmer 200 Series High Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC) with a fluorescence detector was used to determine tocopherols. The mobile phase consisted of ACN (50%), MeOH (45%), and H2O (5%) in isocratic mode with a flow of 0.75 mL/min. A Poroshell 120, EC-C18, 3.0 × 150 mm, 2.7 µm chromatographic column from Agilent (Santa Clara, CA, USA) was kept at 30 °C and was used for separation of the compounds. A volume of 5 µL of the sample was measured using a fluorescent detector set at 290 nm excitation and 330 nm emission. Tocopherol content in samples was expressed in µg/g.

2.2.7. PAHs Analysis

The method was an adaptation of a method developed in a previous study for different food samples. A Perkin Elmer 200 Series High Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC) with an FLD detector was used. The separation of the 15 PAHs (naphthalene, acenaphtene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene) was conducted on an Inertsil ODS-P 5 µm, 4.6 × 150 mm column kept at 24 °C. The injection volume was set at 50 µL. The mobile phase consisted of a gradient of water and acetonitrile and a time-programmed FLD detector was used for the detection. PAH content in samples was expressed in ng/g.

2.2.8. Polyphenols Analysis

A UHPLC Vanquisher H from Dionex (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Germering, Germany ) with a DAD detector was used for the analysis of catechin, epicatechin and resveratrol. The mobile phase was composed of ultra-pure water with 1% acetic acid and MeOH in a gradient with a flow rate of 0.3 mL/min. The chromatographic column used was an Accucore aQ (100 × 2.1 mm, 2.6 μm) from Thermo Fisher, which was kept at 25 °C. The injection volume was 1 µL and the detector was set at 260 nm for catechin and epicatechin and at 360 nm for resveratrol. Polyphenol content in samples was expressed in µg/mg.

2.2.9. Moister Content Analysis

Analysis was performed according to ISO 11294:1994 at 103 °C using a UFE 400 oven from Memmert (Büchenbach, Germany) [36]. The results were expressed in percentages.

2.2.10. Statistical Evaluation

The results were represented as the mean standard deviation, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted through Minitab for Windows version 17.0 (Minitab, LLC, State College, PA, USA). Graphs and world maps were created using Minitab and Jupyter notebooks with the GeoJSON library and original map data from Natural Earth.

3. Results and Discussion

The analyzed samples were from specialty stores and were of single origin. The pedo-climatic characteristics of each country of origin are presented in Table 2 [37]. There was no significant difference between samples regarding moisture content, which varied between 1.54 and 1.86% for all samples. The results for all samples were reported for dry matter.

3.1. Total Phenols, Polyphenols, and Total Antioxidant Capacity

The average results obtained for total phenols, polyphenols, and total antioxidant capacity are presented in Table 3. From all three quantified polyphenols, catechin was the only one determined to be above the detection limit. The results are similar to those found by Ali et al. which quantified Colombian coffee at 17.74 mg GAE/g and Ethiopian coffee at 14.30 mg GAE/g [38].
There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in total polyphenols, catechin, and total antioxidant capacity between specialty coffee and general store coffee. The average total polyphenol content for specialty coffee was 14.22 mg/g, while for the general store type, it was only 3.75 mg/g. The same significant (p < 0.05) difference can be observed for antioxidant capacity as well, with a value of 33.61 mg/g for specialty coffee and only 8.55 mg/g for general store coffee (Figure 1 and Figure 2).
The matrix plot of catechin, total polyphenols, and antioxidant capacity reveals a positive correlation between these three variables in different coffee samples. It also shows which origin of coffee has the highest or lowest concentration. In our study, coffee of Ethiopian origin had the highest concentration, while blends of non-EU coffee had the lowest. From the matrix, it can also be observed that samples have low variance across the same origin of coffee.
The bubble plot below provides a way to explore the relationships between antioxidant capacity and mean annual precipitation (Figure 3). Ethiopia, which has a mean annual precipitation of 850 mm, has the highest antioxidant capacity. This indirect correlation cannot be observed across all the samples analyzed.
The surface plot demonstrates the positive correlation between antioxidant capacity and total polyphenols and catechin (Figure 4).
The distribution of total polyphenols for each country of origin is presented in Figure 5, which clearly indicates the high values that were obtained for Ethiopia and Brazil.

3.2. FT-NIR Analysis

Using FT-NIR spectroscopy, total lipid and total protein content were quantified (Table 4). The highest protein content was determined in Guatemalan coffee 12.8%) and the lowest was in Brazil (9.8%). Brazilian coffee had the lowest lipid content (9%), and El Salvadorian had the highest (14.6%). There was no significant difference between single-origin coffee from specialty coffee stores and coffee in general stores from Brazil. However, between coffees of other origins, there was a difference of 1–5%, representing 10–50% of the total content.
The results are similar to those found by Good Kitzberger et al., who quantified average lipids at 11.23% and proteins at 13.56% [39].

3.3. Hydro- and Liposoluble Vitamins

Vitamin B3, niacin, was quantified as being of the highest concentration in all samples, with an average of 9.77 µg/g. Vitamins B1 and B2 were under the detection limit for all general store coffee (Table 5). Brazilian coffee from the general store had the lowest levels of all four compounds, with B1 and B2 reported as “<LQ”, meaning they were below the limit of quantification for the method used. Non-EU origin also had relatively low levels of all four compounds compared to the other origins. In contrast, Ethiopia and Colombia had the highest levels of B3 and B6, respectively. The levels of B1 and B2 were generally low across all origins, with the highest levels found in Brazil 1. The levels of B3 and B6 are more variable across origins, with the highest levels found in Ethiopia and Colombia, respectively. The results are in the range quantified by Nzekoue et al. for vitamins B2 (0.18–0.2 mg/kg) and B3 (2.5–3.1 mg/kg) [40] (Figure 6).
Coffee samples from Brazil 1, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Ethiopia showed the highest concentrations of α-tocopherol (47.1, 45.2, and 44.2 µg/g) and β-tocopherol (110.4, 99.1, and 98, 7 µg/g). Samples from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Colombia showed moderate concentrations of α-tocopherol (30.7, 31.2, and 32.6 µg/g, respectively) and β-tocopherol (50.8, 51.5, and 52.7 µg/g, respectively), while samples of non-EU origin and those from Brazil 2 showed the lowest concentrations of α-tocopherol (22.5 and 23.0 µg/g, respectively) and β-tocopherol (39.3 and 40.9 µg/g, respectively). For gamma-tocopherol, Brazil 1 had the highest concentration (0.114 µg/g), followed by Ethiopia and Colombia (both 0.03 µg/g). The other samples were at lower concentrations, with Brazil 2 below the limit of quantitation (LQ). For δ-tocopherol, samples from Brazil 1 had the highest concentration (1.335 μg/g), followed by Ethiopia (1.19 μg/g) and Democratic Republic of the Congo (1.154 μg/g). El Salvador, Guatemala, and Colombia had moderate concentrations (0.936, 0.853, and 0.92 µg/g, respectively), while non-EU sources and Brazil 2 had the lowest concentrations (both 0.24 µg/g).
The levels for α- and β-tocopherol are similar to the ones determined by Mansur Tavares et al., who reported α-tocopherol values between 2.8 and 4.8 mg/100 g and β-tocopherol values between 3.6 and 13.3 mg/100 g [41].

3.4. PAHs Analysis

PAHs can form in coffee during the roasting process. From the 15 PAHs analyzed, only 10 were above the detection limit. The average results obtained are presented in Table 6. All samples contained PAHs at the maximum allowed levels according to food contaminants regulation 1881/2006/EC, where the maximum levels are set at 10 µg/kg for benzo(a)pyrene and 50 μg/kg for the sum of benzo(a)pyrene, benz(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, and chrysene [42].
The table presents data on the content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in coffee samples of different origin. The PAHs were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The results show that the total PAH content in coffee samples ranged from 10.43 to 45.61 μg/kg. The samples from the Democratic Republic of the Congo showed the highest PAH levels, with an average of 45.61 μg/kg, while the samples from El Salvador had the lowest average PAH content at 10.43 μg/kg. This study provides important data on the content of PAHs in coffee samples of different origin and highlights the need for regular monitoring of coffee quality to ensure consumer safety. The results can also be used by the coffee industry to improve production practices and reduce the risk of PAH contamination in coffee products (Figure 7). The results are similar to those found by Jimenez et. al, where quantification of naphthalene concentration ranged from 0 to 561 ng g−1, acenaphthylene concentration ranged from 0 to 512 ng g−1, pyrene concentration ranged from 60 to 459 ng g−1, and chrysene concentration ranged from 56 to 371 ng g−1 [43].
The findings suggest that there are notable variations in total phenols, polyphenols, and total antioxidant capacity between specialty coffee and general store coffee. Additionally, the levels of tocopherols and vitamins B1, B2, B3, and B6 in coffee exhibit considerable diversity that can be influenced by several factors, including coffee variety, processing method, and analytical method. Furthermore, tocopherol levels were comparable to earlier research but still subject to considerable variability depending on the factors stated above. Consequently, the nutritional value and antioxidant properties of coffee may be affected by the coffee’s type and origin. Consumers interested in obtaining health advantages from coffee should consider specialty coffee, which contains more polyphenols and has greater antioxidant capacity. The effect of coffee processing and brewing procedures on the levels of bioactive compounds in coffee requires additional research.

4. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study analyzed medium-roasted 100% Arabica coffee samples from six different countries using various analytical techniques, such as HPLC, FT-NIR spectrometry, spectrophotometry, and photochemiluminescence. The aim was to provide a complex profile of the coffee and correlate the data with its origin, as well as compare specialty coffee and general store coffee. The results show significant differences (p < 0.05) between specialty coffee and general store coffee in terms of total polyphenols and total antioxidant capacity, with specialty coffee having higher levels. Furthermore, the study revealed variations in the composition of coffee from different origins, which can be attributed to their pedo-climatic characteristics. The study also demonstrated that the roasted coffee samples analyzed were within the maximum allowed levels for PAHs according to food contaminants regulation. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the chemical composition of coffee and highlights the importance of the origin and cultivation of coffee in its quality and properties.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.S. and A.B.; methodology, D.S. and A.B.; software, D.S. and A.B.; validation, D.S. and A.B.; formal analysis, A.B.; investigation, D.S.; resources, D.S. and A.B.; data curation, D.S. and A.B.; writing—original draft preparation, A.B.; writing—review and editing, D.S.; visualization, A.B.; supervision, D.S.; project administration, A.B.; funding acquisition, A.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was carried out through the Core Program within the National Research Development and Innovation Plan 2022–2027 and was carried out with the support of MCID, project no. PN 23 05 and by the Ministry of Research, Innovation, and Digitization through Program 1—Development of the national research and development system, Subprogram 1.2—Institutional performance projects that finance RDI excellence, Contract no. 18PFE/30.12.2021.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy restrictions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Average results obtained for total polyphenols, polyphenols, and total antioxidant capacity.
Figure 1. Average results obtained for total polyphenols, polyphenols, and total antioxidant capacity.
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Figure 2. Matrix plot of catechin, total polyphenols, and antioxidant capacity.
Figure 2. Matrix plot of catechin, total polyphenols, and antioxidant capacity.
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Figure 3. Bubble plot of antioxidant capacity vs. mean annual precipitation.
Figure 3. Bubble plot of antioxidant capacity vs. mean annual precipitation.
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Figure 4. Surface plot of antioxidant capacity vs. total polyphenol and catechin content.
Figure 4. Surface plot of antioxidant capacity vs. total polyphenol and catechin content.
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Figure 5. Distribution of total polyphenols for each country of origin.
Figure 5. Distribution of total polyphenols for each country of origin.
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Figure 6. Distribution of total B vitamins for each country of origin.
Figure 6. Distribution of total B vitamins for each country of origin.
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Figure 7. Average values for chrysene, benzo(a)pyrene, and total PAHs in ng/g.
Figure 7. Average values for chrysene, benzo(a)pyrene, and total PAHs in ng/g.
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Table 1. General data regarding the coffee samples.
Table 1. General data regarding the coffee samples.
Coffee OriginNumber of SamplesPurchased From
El Salvador8Specialty coffee shops
Guatemala7Specialty coffee shops
Brazil 113Specialty coffee shops
D.R. Congo4Specialty coffee shops
Ethiopia7Specialty coffee shops
Colombia13Specialty coffee shops
Non-EU origin 11General store
Brazil 24General store
Table 2. Average pedo-climatic characteristics for each country.
Table 2. Average pedo-climatic characteristics for each country.
Coffee OriginSoil TypeMean Annual Precipitation (mm)Mean Annual Temperature (°C)Altitude (m)
El Salvadorvolcanic 1703.5425.241200
Guatemalaclay-and-limestone2171.7423.661750
Brazilvolcanic loam1778.8725.451000
D.R. Congoclay-sandy volcanic1500.7724.351800
Ethiopiavolcanic Nitosols850.1423.371950
Colombiavolcanic2562.17251750
Table 3. Average results obtained for total polyphenols, polyphenols, and total antioxidant capacity.
Table 3. Average results obtained for total polyphenols, polyphenols, and total antioxidant capacity.
Coffee OriginTotal Polyphenol
mg GAE/g
Catechin µg/mgAntioxidant Capacity mg/g Trolox Equiv.
El Salvador12.899 ±0.4720.482 ± 0.06029.493 ± 0.559
Guatemala11.731 ± 0.7370.558 ± 0.04227.304 ± 0.635
Brazil 114.447 ± 0.5750.660 ± 0.05625.652 ± 0.804
D.R. Congo13.933 ± 0.3920.580 ± 0.04828.543 ± 1.030
Ethiopia19.00 ± 1.0870.74 ± 0.04559.37 ± 1.107
Colombia13.31 ± 0.6140.64 ± 0.05331.28 ± 0.737
Non-EU origin 3.72 ± 0.5640.26 ± 0.0508.62 ± 0.596
Brazil 23.78 ± 0.8220.25 ± 0.0718.50 ± 0.824
Table 4. Average results obtained for total lipids and total protein.
Table 4. Average results obtained for total lipids and total protein.
Coffee OriginTotal Lipids %Total Protein %
El Salvador14.610 ± 0.30312.474 ± 0.858
Guatemala13.541 ± 0.37112.834 ± 0.970
Brazil 19.482 ± 0.7899.777 ± 0.639
D.R. Congo13.543 ± 0.56212.223 ± 0.808
Ethiopia10.39 ± 0.75411.02 ± 0.698
Colombia12.76 ± 1.11912.94 ± 1.389
Non-EU origin9.85 ± 0.8439.93 ± 0.591
Brazil 29.00 ± 0.81610.48 ± 0.248
Table 5. Average results obtained for hydro- and liposoluble vitamins.
Table 5. Average results obtained for hydro- and liposoluble vitamins.
Coffee OriginB1
µg/g
B2
µg/g
B3
µg/g
B6
µg/g
α-Tocopherol
µg/g
β-Tocopherol
µg/g
γ-Tocopherol
µg/g
δ-Tocopherol
µg/g
El Salvador0.136 ± 0.0120.116 ± 0.0388.881 ± 0.560.015 ± 0.00230.7 ± 1.350.8 ± 0.70.016 ± 0.0030.936 ± 0.206
Guatemala0.063 ± 0.0110.027 ± 0.0118.124 ± 0.310.014 ± 0.00131.2 ± 1.551.5 ± 1.10.029 ± 0.0050.853 ± 0.063
Brazil 10.339 ± 0.0480.215 ± 0.05510.311 ± 0.730.075 ± 0.0447.1 ± 2.5110.4 ± 4.80.114 ± 0.1501.335 ± 0.202
D.R. Congo0.163 ± 0.0280.158 ± 0.02210.353 ± 0.360.058 ± 0.00844.2 ± 0.799.1 ± 5.60.023 ± 0.0021.154 ± 0.083
Ethiopia0.22 ± 0.0400.07 ± 0.01311.40 ± 0.670.08 ± 0.01045.2 ± 0.498.7 ± 4.50.03 ± 0.0041.19 ± 0.179
Colombia0.25 ± 0.0300.13 ± 0.0299.58 ± 0.650.07 ± 0.00832.6 ± 0.852.7 ± 1.00.03 ± 0.0050.92 ± 0.094
Non-EU origin0.03 ± 0.0190.02 ± 0.0152.34 ± 0.560.01 ± 0.00322.5 ± 0.739.3 ± 5.00.02 ± 0.0160.24 ± 0.049
Brazil 2<LQ *<LQ2.01 ± 0.31<LQ23.0 ± 0.740.9 ± 1.6<LQ **0.24 ± 0.044
* LQ = 0.06 µg/g; ** LQ = 0.01 µg/g.
Table 6. Average results obtained for PAHs in ng/g.
Table 6. Average results obtained for PAHs in ng/g.
Coffee OriginValueNapPhenAnthrFluorPyreneBenzo
(a)antr
ChryBenzo
(b)f
Benzo
(a)p
Dibenzo
(a,h)a
Total PAHs
El SalvadorAvg.5.211.251.110.590.870.220.080.110.590.0910.43
SD0.720.020.090.130.380.040.010.120.23n.a.3.52
GuatemalaAvg.7.1112.641.120.680.180.140.200.041.430.1223.50
SD1.661.180.100.070.100.030.020.010.24n.a.2.28
Brazil 1Avg.6.3513.840.760.560.220.150.130.070.810.0722.79
SD0.891.000.090.100.060.240.030.040.070.051.72
D.R. CongoAvg.10.3426.710.501.940.120.134.65<LQ *1.22<LQ45.61
SD1.097.570.080.360.030.048.90n.a.0.12n.a.7.72
EthiopiaAvg.8.746.680.711.750.200.040.45<LQ0.130.2418.75
SD0.621.150.080.350.040.020.10n.a.0.04n.a.0.99
ColombiaAvg.10.4710.413.531.950.950.030.200.021.260.2228.86
SD0.610.790.400.663.020.010.090.010.180.05n.a
Non-EU originAvg.12.5510.912.081.870.390.090.490.041.530.3730.04
SD1.490.880.370.530.040.030.150.020.270.082.12
Brazil 2Avg.11.7010.911.812.030.370.090.300.041.610.3328.99
SD1.750.890.460.450.050.010.220.010.060.122.63
* LQ = 0.005 ng/g.
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Simedru, D.; Becze, A. Complex Profiling of Roasted Coffee Based on Origin and Production Scale. Agriculture 2023, 13, 1146. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13061146

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Simedru D, Becze A. Complex Profiling of Roasted Coffee Based on Origin and Production Scale. Agriculture. 2023; 13(6):1146. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13061146

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Simedru, Dorina, and Anca Becze. 2023. "Complex Profiling of Roasted Coffee Based on Origin and Production Scale" Agriculture 13, no. 6: 1146. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13061146

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