New Insight into Organomineral Interactions in Soils. The Impact of Clay-Size Peat-Derived Organic Species on the Structure and the Strength of Soil Silt Aggregates
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Substrates
- SILT: Silt fraction with a particle size range of 2–50 µm coming from the upper 0–10 cm layer of Haplic Luvisol containing 66% sand (2–0.02 mm), 28% silt (0.02–0.002 mm), and 6% clay (<0.002 mm), described in detail by Lipiec et al. [40], was used as skeletal material. Clay particles were discarded from the soil by sedimentation (4:100 solid: liquid w/w ratio), and sand particles by wet sieving. Then, the material was treated with hydrogen peroxide to remove native organic matter (if any), intensively washed with NaCl, and then with water. The silt was composed mainly from feldspars and quartz.
- PEAT: An acidic peat bought in a garden shop (pH ≈ 4), fragmented by a 3-min treatment with an ordinary kitchen blender and depleted from sand by sedimentation, was intensively washed with 0.1 mol·L−1 hydrochloric acid to remove inorganic substances and next with distilled water by centrifuging to pH around 4, air dried, and finely milled in a ball mill.
- HA: Humic acids extracted from the PEAT using 0.5 mol·L−1 sodium hydroxide, precipitated with HCl at pH = 1 and washed with distilled water by centrifuging to pH around 4.
- RES: The residue remaining after HA extraction was washed with 0.1 mol·L−1 HCl and next with distilled water by centrifuging to pH around 4. Material was lyophilized and finely ground in a ball mill.
- BC300: Biochar produced by heating the PEAT at 300 °C under limited air access, washed with 0.1 mol·L−1 HCl and next with distilled water by centrifuging to a pH of around 4, air dried and finely milled in a ball mill.
- BC600: Biochar produced by heating the PEAT at 600 °C under limited air access, washed with 0.1 mol·L−1 HCl and next with distilled water by centrifuging to a pH of around 4, air dried and finely milled in a ball mill.
2.2. Characteristics of the Substrates
- Substrates (solid phase) densities, SPD [kg·m−3], were estimated by helium pycnometry using an automatic device Ultrapycnometer 1000 (Quantachrome Instruments, Boynton Beach, FL, USA) in five replicates.
- Organic amendments were ground intensively to uniformize their particle sizes and remove impurities, which allowed the joining of the aggregate properties with the measured surface and physicochemical parameters. Particle size distribution, PSD, of the organic substrates was determined at 25 °C for suspensions of 100 mg·dm−3 materials in 1 L of 0.01 mol·L−1 sodium hexametaphosphate/0.015 mol·L−1 sodium bicarbonate solution using a ZetaSizer Nano ZS instrument (Malvern Ltd., Leamington, UK) device in six replicates. The distribution of the silt was not measured with the ZetaSizer due to large particles sedimented in the electric field. Therefore, this characteristic was determined using a laser diffraction method using Malvern Mastersizer 2000, as described by Ryzak and Bieganowski [45]. The PSD functions were expressed as the number of particles of a given radius in the total number of particles. The average particle diameter, d [m], was then calculated from PSD functions.
- FTIR characteristics were recorded for dried organic substrates (105 °C) using a Tensor 27 spectrometer (Bruker Corporation, Billerica, MA, USA) in 400–4000 cm−1 range. Briefly, 1 mg of each powdered sample was homogenised with 200 mg of spectral purity bromide potassium and pelletized. The spectra were obtained as an average of three measurements with 256 scans at 2 cm−1 resolution each. The transmittance signals were converted to absorbance, and the characteristics were prepared using concave rubber band correction of the baseline, vector normalization, and smoothing function.
- Dependencies of variable surface charge—Q [mol·g−1] on pH, distribution functions of apparent surface dissociation constants, and their average values were determined from titration curves measured using Titrino 702SM autotitration unit (Metrohm A.G., Herisau, Switzerland). A suspension of a particular material was equilibrated overnight with 1 mol·L−1 NaCl solution and then adjusted to pH =3.0 and titrated by 60 s increments of 1 μL 0.100 mol·L−1 NaOH/1 mol·L−1 NaCl solution to pH = 10 under N2 flux. The measurements were performed in triplicate. From the averaged titration curve of the sample suspended in liquid, the titration curve of its equilibrium solution (1 mol·L−1 NaCl) was subtracted to obtain the titration curve of the solid phase. The data of the latter curve were expressed as the variable surface charge pH dependence. Under the assumption that surface acids dissociate stepwise, the actual pH is −log of the apparent surface dissociation constant, pKapp. The first derivative of the Q(pKapp) curve on pKapp gives the distribution function of apparent surface dissociation constants, f(pKapp), and the average value of pKapp in the whole experimental window, pKapp,av, was calculated as ∫f(pKapp)dpKapp. More details on the method and calculations are presented in Jozefaciuk et al. [46].
2.3. Aggregates
2.4. Characteristics of the Aggregates
- Magnified images (1000×) of the surfaces of the aggregates broken by hand were taken using the Phenom ProX desktop SEM provided by Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). Samples were placed on aluminium stubs by double-sided carbon tape and sputtered with a 5 nm gold layer (sputter coater, CCU-010 LV, Safematic GmbH, Zizers, Switzerland). The imaging was conducted in BSE mode at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV. Representative images were selected.
- The bulk density, BD [g·cm−3], was estimated for air-dry specimens. The aggregate mass (minus its water content) was divided by the aggregate volume measured by its compulsive immersion in mercury. The water content in the aggregates was measured by weighing them after overnight heating at 105 °C. The measurements were replicated five times.
- Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) measurements for the studied aggregates were performed using the Autopore IV 9500 porosimeter (Micromeritics, Norcross, GA, USA) for three replicates of each material. The total pore volumes Vt [m3·g−1], pore size distribution functions, and average pore diameter, dav [m], were calculated from the mercury intrusion curves that show the dependence between the pore volume (intruded mercury) and the pore diameter d [m].. The pressures at which mercury started to enter the pores inside the aggregates (penetration thresholds), PT [m], were approximated by the pore diameter at which the second derivative of the pore volume on logd equals zero [48]. The intrinsic pore volume within an aggregate, Via, was taken as the volume of mercury intruded into the pores at higher pressures than those corresponding to PT, and the average intrinsic pore diameter in that range, dint,av [m], was calculated. The pore surface fractal dimension, Ds, was calculated from the slope of the linear part (if any) of the dependence of log(dV/dd) against logd. All details of the method and the calculations are presented by Jozefaciuk [49]. MIP tests were also performed for the dried HA paste in order to have some insight into the structure of pure HA.
- Uniaxial compression measurements were performed using Lloyd LRX (Lloyd Instruments Ltd., Bognor Regis, UK). The aggregate was placed vertically on the machine basement and forced by a piston. The force estimated with the accuracy of ±0.05 N against displacement of the piston passed with 10−5 m·s−1 was examined for ten replicates for aggregates of a given organic-mineral composition. The averaged breakage curve was calculated from at least six curves, most similar among ten replicates. Different curves, measured most probably for aggregates having structural artifacts, were discarded. From the average breakage curves, the dependencies of the compression stress, σ [MPa], (load divided by the aggregate cross-section area) versus strain, and ∆L/L (relative aggregate deformation, equal to piston displacement divided by the aggregate height) were calculated.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Properties of Substrates
3.2. Structure of the Aggregates
3.3. Strength of Aggregates
3.4. General Remarks and Implications
4. Conclusions
- Humic acid exerted an extremely high effect on the mechanical strength of silt aggregates. At similar concentrations, it increased the aggregate strength a few times more than the peat and over ten times more than the residue after HA extraction from the peat (RES).
- Despite similar particle sizes to PEAT and RES, biochars obtained from the peat after 300 and 600°C heating weakened the aggregates.
- Bulk density of the silt aggregates increased due to HA addition and decreased due to other amendments, whereas the total volume of pores behaved in the opposite direction.
- HA smoothed the surfaces of the pore system, which was indicated by a decrease in pore surface fractal dimension.
- The Langmuir-like curve was proposed to relate mechanical strength to the aggregate composition (a given organic additive content). A satisfactory model fit to the experimental data was reached.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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SILT | PEAT | HA | RES | BC300 | BC600 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average particle diameter; d [µm] | 3.70 | 0.57 | 0.06 | 0.29 | 0.24 | 0.23 |
Particle density; SPD [g·cm−3] | 2.73 | 1.61 | 1.49 | 1.50 | 1.59 | 1.82 |
PEAT | HA | RES | BC300 | BC600 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average particle diameter; d [µm] | 0.49 | 0.71 | 0.42 | 0.32 | 0.10 |
Particle density; SPD [g·cm−3] | 6.47 | 6.18 | 6.98 | 7.15 | 7.52 |
SILT | PEAT | HA 1 | RES | BC300 | BC600 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bulk density; BD [cm3·g−1] | 1.38 | 0.69 | n.d. | 0.65 | 0.82 | 0.85 |
Total pore volume; Vt [cm3·g−1] | 0.32 | 0.50 | 0.51 | 0.73 | 0.75 | 0.60 |
Average pore diameter; dav [µm] | 7.02 | 1.97 | 13.1 | 3.85 | 2.35 | 1.10 |
SILT | PEAT | HA 1 | RES | BC300 | BC600 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intrinsic pore volume; Vint [cm3·g−1] | 0.18 | 0.23 | 0.03 | 0.38 | 0.44 | 0.37 |
Average intrinsic pore diameter; dav,int [µm] | 1.33 | 0.86 | 0.01 | 1.07 | 0.97 | 0.77 |
PEAT | HA | RES | BC300 | BC600 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A, [MPa] | 0.592 | 3.887 | 0.386 | 0.085 | 0.045 |
k | 0.063 | 0.090 | 0.004 | 0.051 | 0.955 |
Smax of aggregate of pure substrate, [MPa] | 2.10 | n.d. | 0.940 | 0.071 | 0.026 |
Initial Changes | Further Trends | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parameter | PEAT | HA | RES | BC300 | BC600 | PEAT | HA | RES | BC300 | BC600 |
Maximum strength | + | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | − | − |
Bulk density | + | + | − | − | + | − | + | − | − | − |
Total pore volume | − | − | − | − | + | + | − | + | + | + |
Average pore diameter | + | + | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − |
Intrinsic pore volume | − | − | − | + | + | + | − | + | + | − |
Intrinsic pore diameter | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | + | − | − |
Fractal dimension | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | − | − |
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Skic, K.; Adamczuk, A.; Boguta, P.; Gryta, A.; Masoudi Soltani, S.; Ignatova, S.; Józefaciuk, G. New Insight into Organomineral Interactions in Soils. The Impact of Clay-Size Peat-Derived Organic Species on the Structure and the Strength of Soil Silt Aggregates. Agriculture 2023, 13, 2241. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13122241
Skic K, Adamczuk A, Boguta P, Gryta A, Masoudi Soltani S, Ignatova S, Józefaciuk G. New Insight into Organomineral Interactions in Soils. The Impact of Clay-Size Peat-Derived Organic Species on the Structure and the Strength of Soil Silt Aggregates. Agriculture. 2023; 13(12):2241. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13122241
Chicago/Turabian StyleSkic, Kamil, Agnieszka Adamczuk, Patrycja Boguta, Angelika Gryta, Salman Masoudi Soltani, Svetlana Ignatova, and Grzegorz Józefaciuk. 2023. "New Insight into Organomineral Interactions in Soils. The Impact of Clay-Size Peat-Derived Organic Species on the Structure and the Strength of Soil Silt Aggregates" Agriculture 13, no. 12: 2241. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13122241
APA StyleSkic, K., Adamczuk, A., Boguta, P., Gryta, A., Masoudi Soltani, S., Ignatova, S., & Józefaciuk, G. (2023). New Insight into Organomineral Interactions in Soils. The Impact of Clay-Size Peat-Derived Organic Species on the Structure and the Strength of Soil Silt Aggregates. Agriculture, 13(12), 2241. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13122241