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Article

The Energy Value for Broiler Chickens of Heat-Treated and Untreated Amaranth Grain, with and without Enzyme Addition

by
Hossein Janmohammadi
1,
Babak Hosseintabar-Ghasemabad
1,
Saeid Amirdahri
1,
Ivan Fedorovich Gorlov
2,
Karpenko Ekaterina Vladimirovna
2,
Marina Ivanovna Slozhenkina
2,
Rana Muhammad Bilal
3,
Alireza Seidavi
4,* and
Clive Julian Christie Phillips
5,6,*
1
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 5166616471, Iran
2
Volga Region Research Institute of Manufacture and Processing of Meat-and-Milk Production, 400131 Volgograd, Russia
3
Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University, Bahawalpur 62300, Pakistan
4
Department of Animal Science, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht 41335-3516, Iran
5
Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia
6
Curtin University Sustainability Policy (CUSP) Institute, Kent St., Bentley 6102, Australia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2022, 12(11), 1810; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111810
Submission received: 24 September 2022 / Revised: 21 October 2022 / Accepted: 27 October 2022 / Published: 31 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New and Alternative Feeds, Additives, and Supplements)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Amaranth is a pseudocereal which can thrive in conditions of drought and limited inputs. Samples of amaranth grain were subjected to proximate analysis with standard laboratory methods. We conducted two experiments to determine apparent (corrected to zero nitrogen balance) metabolisable energy (AMEn) content of untreated (UAG) and heat-treated (HTAG) amaranth grain for Ross-308 male broiler chicks (35–42 d and BW 2141 ± 10.41 g). In each experiment, 10 assay diets (ADs) were fed to 400 birds in individual metabolism cages in a 2 × 5 factorial design. ADs were obtained by substituting amaranth for the main ingredients in the reference diet (RD). Two levels of enzyme addition (0 and 0.55 g/kg) and five amaranth replacement rates (0, 150, 300, 450 and 600 g/kg) were used, and metabolism trials were conducted using the total excreta collection method. Two regression equations were estimated for UAG, with and without enzyme addition, that determined the AMEn content of UAG as 3264 and 3255 kcal/kg, respectively. For HTAG, the AMEn contents with and without enzyme addition were 3973 and 3828 kcal/kg, respectively. Thus, enzyme addition improved the energy value of UAG and HTAG by 0.28 and 3.8%, respectively. The AMEn value of HTAG was 708 and 573 kcal/kg higher than UAG in diets with and without enzyme addition, respectively. Thus, we conclude that there was more benefit from heat treatment than enzyme addition, but there was a synergistic effect of heat treatment and enzyme inclusion on the metabolisable energy concentration of amaranth in the diets of broilers.

1. Introduction

Global climate change is expected to increase the exposure of grain crops to elevated temperatures, by 1–4 °C by the year 2100, and to increase the prevalence of droughts, at the same time as demand for chicken meat is increasing rapidly to meet the growth in world population and increased affluence in many developing countries [1]. Amaranth is a widespread, dicotyledonous, pseudocereal, some genera of which have been cultivated for thousands of years in Central and South America [2], whereas others are considered weeds. In Aztec culture, amaranth was used as a staple crop and had religious significance, but the Spanish forbade its cultivation in an attempt to suppress their culture [3]. Amaranth responds positively to temperature increases of 4 °C, up to 32 °C [4], as well as having high yields and drought resistance by virtue of its C4 photosynthetic pathway [5]. Amaranth has a water requirement half that of corn and is recommended in areas where sorghum and millet are grown [6]. Moreover, fertilizer prices have more than doubled in the last two years [7], considerably more than grain prices, which means that crops with low nitrogen requirements such as amaranth have to be carefully considered. There are no reliable statistics on worldwide amaranth cultivation; however, it is mainly grown in China and Russia [8], with 300,000 and 100,000 ha reported to be under cultivation around the turn of the century [9]. It is also grown in Central and South America, India and parts of Africa. With international trade worth approximately 1 billion USD, the world’s major exporter is China (14% of the global market), followed by the Netherlands (8%) and Austria (7%) [10]. Different amaranth varieties are grown for two main products: grain (Amaranthus cruentus, A. hybridus and A. hypochondriacus) and a green vegetable (A. tricolor and A. lividus). Both have high-potential and multipurpose usage [11], including as an ingredient in bakery products and as a thickening agent. There are also non-food uses, such as dusting powder in cosmetics [9]. The starch from amaranth grain has a low gelatinisation temperature and is stable over a wide range of temperatures, making it suitable for use as a thickening agent [9]. Amaranth protein is of better amino acid composition for humans than most major cereals and even cows’ milk [9]. Amaranth contains more oil than the other major cereals, with a saturated fat-to-unsaturated fat ratio of about 0.3. Amaranth also has some antinutritive factors as well as polyphenols with antioxidant properties, which are claimed to reduce blood cholesterol [8]. The antioxidant properties are amplified by heat treatment, probably as a result of increased flavonoids, whereas phenolic content is variably affected, depending on variety and type of heat treatment [12]. Viscosity is typically increased by heat treatment; however, protein digestibility declines [12]. Heat treatment may be in the form of autoclaving, popping or roasting.
Amaranth has a fast growth rate, and typical yields of amaranth grains per hectare are between 2 and 6 tons [9], providing there is sufficient heat for germination and for the first three months of growth. It can be used in rotation with winter wheat. Amaranths are considered a relatively neglected species that is important for future food security [13,14,15].
The main use of amaranth grain in livestock diets has been in China, where it is used extensively, as is silage from green material [9]. As well as a high nutritive value, it has significant antibacterial and antiviral effects [16]. It is recommended as a supplement for humans in developing countries, particularly to reduce the incidence of anaemia by virtue of its high iron content [16]. Fermented amaranth is a good substrate for probiotics [17], but prefermenting prior to feeding to livestock has not yet been evaluated for its effects on the nutritive value of amaranth grain. The nutritive value of amaranth grain (A. cruentus, A. hypochondriacus and A. caudatus) as both raw flour and the extruded product has been evaluated in monogastric animals [18]. Its value for poultry was studied quite extensively in the 1980s [19,20,21,22,23,24,25]. More recently, different species of amaranth grain (A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus) as untreated and heat-treated (autoclaved and extruded) forms have been used in growth, feeding and metabolism trials in broilers, laying hens, quails and turkeys [18,26,27,28,29,30,31,32]. The results of these studies demonstrate that inclusion of amaranth grain in broiler diets at low levels (≤200 g/kg) results in comparable performance to diets based on a corn–soybean meal mixture. Higher levels of inclusion of amaranth, up to 400 g/kg, have had no adverse effects on production or carcase traits of laying hens or broilers provided that the amaranth was autoclaved or extruded [20,22,23,25,28,32].
The AMEn values for raw and autoclaved grain of A. edulis have been determined as 2780 and 3072 kcal/kg on an as-fed basis [33]. The AMEn value of extruded grain of A. cruentus, determined by regression in the study of Tilman and Waldroup [21], was 3267 kcal/kg feed. Ravindran et al. [25] reported 2832 and 3133 kcal/kg of AME for untreated and autoclaved A. hypochondriacus grain, respectively. Different TMEn values of amaranth grain have been detected for chickens and turkeys [26].
Enzyme preparations are used by the poultry feed production industry to improve the available energy content of diets containing cereal grains and plant protein meals [34,35,36,37]. Different enzymes, for example α-amylase or amyloglucosidase, have variable effects on the physicochemical properties of amaranth starch, but generally improve its resistance to crystallisation and broaden the range of gelatinisation temperatures [38]. The α-amylases from a proprietary thermostable bacteria product were more effective than those from Bacillus subtilis, which were in turn more effective than those from the fungus Aspergillus oryzae. However, the effects of enzymes on amaranth grain’s available energy content have not been evaluated for poultry. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to determine the chemical composition and AMEn content of raw and autoclaved forms of Amaranthus hybridus chorostachys with and without multienzyme addition in adult male broilers.

2. Materials and Methods

The chickens were raised under standard husbandry conditions in the poultry research unit belonging to the Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz.

2.1. Birds and Management

A total of 800 one-day-old male Ross-308 broiler chickens (400 birds for each of two separate experiments) were obtained from a commercial hatchery (breeding reference: Arta. Ltd., Ardebil, Iran) and raised on a litter floor at the brooding and rearing unit. Vaccination programs were carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the General Veterinary Administration of the region. The lighting program was 23 h light and 1 h dark daily. The temperature at placement was 34 °C, which was reduced gradually to 20 °C using thermostatically controlled heaters and fans to ensure comfort for the birds. Corn–soybean meal diet with balanced nutrient requirements, in accordance with the Ross-308 recommendations, were fed ad libitum during starter and grower phases. The birds had free access to water.
In each experiment, a week before starting a metabolism trial at day 35, 400 birds with mean body weight of 2141 ± 10.41 g were selected and transferred to metabolic cages. To accurately measure feed consumption and faecal output, individual metabolic cages (40 cm × 65 cm × 75 cm) were used with stainless steel feeders, watering cups and faecal collection pans. In order to determine AMEn content in the metabolism trials, two separate bioassays were conducted, the first with untreated amaranth grain (UAG) and the second with heat-treated amaranth grain (HTAG) in a 2 × 5 factorial design with ten dietary treatments and ten replicates, each of four birds (400 birds per experiment). Two levels of enzyme addition, 0 (−E) and 0.55 (+E) g/kg, and five levels of amaranth grain (0, 150, 300, 450 and 600 g/kg) were used as the two factors. By inclusion of different levels of UAG±E and HTAG±E with corn grain in the reference diet (RD) (Table 1), 20 assay diets (ADs) were obtained. In the ADs, the main ingredients (corn, soybean meal, barley and vegetable oil) in RD were replaced by amaranth grain (UAG±E and HTAG±E), so that the ratios between the non-amaranth ingredients were unchanged.
Chemical analysis and GE measurement of diets and total excreta followed methodology described previously [25,39]. RD and ADs were fed to birds for two days for adaptation. Then, after 24 h fasting, RD and ADs were fed again for 72 h followed by 24 h of fasting. Total excreta output during these four days were collected in plastic zip-keep bags and stored in a freezer at −20 °C.

2.2. Test Ingredients

The included test ingredients in ADs were amaranth grain as untreated (UAG) and heat-treated (HTAG) forms. After herbarium evaluation in the National Botanical Garden (Tehran, Iran), the species Amaranthus hybridus chlorostachys was cultivated in the Khalat-Poushan Educational and Research Center, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, in the year 2018, planted in June and harvested in September.
Grains were separated, sifted and milled by a threshing machine (Arian.Eng 211, Arian Agricultural Machines Co, Tehran, Iran), cleaning machine (A.R.S 500, Alborz Industrial Machines Co, Karaj, Iran) and stone mill (ML218, Ghorbani Electrical Machines Co, Rasht, Iran), respectively, in the Darvash Giah Khazar Medicinal Herbs Complex. For heat treatment, grains underwent autoclave processing, at 120 °C for 5 min. The milled grains were transferred to the Advanced Animal Nutrition Lab where chemical analysis was performed.

2.3. Chemical Analyses

Chemical analysis of feed and excreta samples was according to the methods detailed by Association Official Analytical Chemist [40]. Frozen samples of collected excreta were placed at 70 °C for 72 h in a drying Oven Memmert (Model:100–800, made in Germany), and after cooling, moisture exchange for 24 h (under laboratory conditions) and separation of feathers, they were weighed and milled.
Nitrogen (N) content of feed and excreta samples were measured by a Foss 2300 Kjeletc Analyzer. Gross energy (GE) was determined by a Parr adiabatic bomb calorimeter (Parr 6100 Instruments Co., Moline, IL, USA), using benzoic acid as a standard calibration. The amount of crude protein (CP) was calculated as N × 6.25. In addition, ether extract (EE) was analysed by solvent extractor (Ser 148, Analytical Instrument Velp Scientifica), crude fibre (CF) by Fibertec (Ser 1010, Foss Analytic), Ash by Electric furnace Shin Seang (Model: SEF-201). In addition, neutral-detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) were measured by Van Soest et al.’s method [41].

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Linear regression was used to determine AMEn values of the amaranth grain treatments. In the series of ADs, the test ingredient was incorporated into RD in amounts from 0 (RD) to 600 g/kg, respectively, in 15% increments, so that five ADs were produced for UAG−E, UAG+E, HTAG−E and HTAG+E, respectively.
The AMEn was calculated as follows: AMEn = [(Feed intake × GEdiet) − (Excreta output × GEexcreta) − (NR × K)]/Feed intake [42].
Where NR (nitrogen retention) = (Feed intake × Feed nitrogen content) − (Excreta output × Excreta nitrogen content). K = 8.22 kcal/g NR [43].
In order to determine the AMEn of the test ingredient, linear relationships between the values of AMEn of the ADs and the intake of the test ingredient were evaluated [44]. In this way, the AMEn intake associated with amaranth intake was regressed against the intake of amaranth. The linear equation obtained (Y = ax + b) was used to estimate AMEn for a diet containing 100% amaranth grain.
Percentages of dry matter digestibility (DMD) and metabolisability were calculated as follows: DMD = [(Feed DM intake − Excreta DM output)/Feed DM intake] × 100, and Metabolisability = (AMEn/GE) × 100 [22].
Random errors were evaluated for normal and independent distribution and homogeneity of variance using the Shapiro–Wilk test and Bartlett’s test, respectively. Experimental data were analysed using a completely randomized design as the factorial arrangement within R software [45,46]. Data were expressed as mean values ± SEM, and the differences were compared with Duncan’s multiple range test [47]. Differences were assumed to be significant if p < 0.05.

3. Results

The chemical composition and GE content of amaranth grain (A. hybridus chlorostachys) are presented in Table 2. The differences between most UAG and HTAG chemical constituents were small; however, NDF contents and NFE were both increased by heat treatment.

3.1. Untreated Amaranth Grain

The main effects of UAG level, enzyme addition and their interaction on AMEn, metabolisability and DMD in ADs are shown in Table 3. Amaranth inclusion reduced AMEn at the lowest inclusion rate, but thereafter increased it. Similarly, metabolisability initially decreased at the lowest level, but above 300 increased with each increment of amaranth inclusion. DM digestibility was reduced for all levels of amaranth inclusion, compared with the zero inclusion rate.
Enzyme addition had no effect on AMEn but increased both metabolisability and DM digestibility. There were significant interactions between the amaranth inclusion rate and enzyme inclusion on all three variables. AMEn increased more with enzyme inclusion at no or low amaranth inclusion rates. However, metabolisability tended to be increased more by enzyme addition at the higher amaranth inclusion rates, and DMD was reduced less at high amaranth inclusion rates when the enzyme was added.

3.2. Heat-Treated Amaranth Grain

The main effects of the HTAG level, enzyme addition and their interaction on AMEn, metabolisability and DMD are shown in Table 4. AMEn increased from the 0 and 150 inclusion rates, which did not differ, incrementally at higher inclusion rates. The 600 g/kg inclusion rate had an AMEn of 3788 compared with 3098 for 0/150 inclusion rates. The metabolisability of the diet tended to increase with inclusion rate above 300 g/kg, and the DM digestibility declined from 0 to 300 g/kg and then increased at higher rates.
Enzyme addition increased AMEn, metabolisability and DM digestibility. The interaction between the two factors, heat treatment and enzyme addition, which were significant for all the variables, showed that there was a synergistic effect of amaranth inclusion at the highest level and enzyme inclusion, with AMEn increasing from 3720 without enzyme to 3855 with enzyme. Similarly, metabolisability was greater with enzyme addition at the highest amaranth inclusion rate (80.8 vs. 79.1). However, DM digestibility was similar for all treatments except at the zero amaranth inclusion rate, when enzyme addition increased the DMD from 64.6 to 69.6%.
The regression analysis of AMEn values of amaranth grain as untreated and heat-treated forms in diets with/without enzyme addition on intake values of amaranth grain resulted in four prediction equations. The equations are presented in Table 5. All equations showed relatively high determination coefficient values (r2), from 98 to 99%. The solution of the four equations for x = 1 (100% substitution of amaranth grain in RD) resulted in four AMEn (kcal/kg) values, which were as follows: 3255, 3265, 3829 and 3973 for UAG−E, UAG+E, HTAG−E and HTAG+E, respectively. The average value of AMEn, 3580 kcal/kg, represented 84% of GE content. Overall, the processing of untreated amaranth grain with enzyme and heat treatment improved AMEn values by 10 and 573 kcal/kg, respectively.

4. Discussion

4.1. Nutritional Value of Amaranth

The values of CP, EE and CF in amaranth grain were higher than those in cereals. The high value for GE can be attributed to the high content of organic matter (850 g/kg) in amaranth grain. NDF was also high in the ADs, which probably decreased DMD in ADs containing a high level of amaranth grain. However, the increased NDF and ADF in amaranth grain was not enough to cause a decrease in the availability of energy in the ADs.
Nutrient concentrations in amaranth seed have been determined previously [9,19,48,49]. The concentrations of nutrients (CP, EE, CF, NFE and NFC) in our study were mostly within the range of reported values. Compared with our value of 3255 kcal/kg, UAG has previously been found to have AMEn values of 3145 kcal/kg [33], 2859 kcal/kg [20] and 2832 kcal/kg [25]. AMEn values for A. hypochondriacus, A. cruentus and A. hybridus have been reported to be between 2700 and 3600 kcal/kg [9]. Connor et al. [33] reported AMEn values of untreated and autoclaved amaranth species (A. edulis) as 3145 and 3475 kcal/kg, respectively. Tillman and Waldroup [22] determined the AMEn values of extruded A. cruentus in broiler chickens as 3522 and 3415 kcal/kg DM, respectively. Ravindran et al. [25] estimated the AMEn value of A. hypochondriacus, either untreated or autoclaved, in broiler chickens as 2832 and 3133 kcal/kg dry matter, respectively. Acar and Vohra [20] reported that the AME value based on the DM for untreated amaranth in the forms of flour, fat-free flour, milled containing perisperm, milled with bran and popped were as follows: 3210, 3090, 3680, 3060 and 2980 kcal/kg, respectively. The AME of these forms for autoclaved amaranth were 3040, 2940, 3100 and 3170 kcal/kg, respectively.
In comparison with the report of Cai et al. [9], A. hybridus chlorostachys in our study had less CP (168 g/kg) than the corresponding value for A. hypochondriacus and twice the CF content (101 g/kg) compared with A. hybridus, A. cruentus and A. caudatus (60, 40 and 50 g/kg, respectively). The high CF content would probably decrease the available energy from A. hybridus chlorostachys for poultry. However, Dhellot et al. [49] evaluated the chemical composition of A. hybridus and reported that it was a rich source of protein (170 g/kg), which is consistent with the present study. The CP value for amaranth seeds in the present study was in the range of CP values for amaranth seeds in different species (140–170 g/kg) [50]. Ravindran et al. [25] reported CP, EE, CF and ash concentrations of 168, 58, 60 and 26 g/kg, respectively, for A. hypochondriacus. These are close to the corresponding values in this study, except for CF and ash. Amaranth grain is two times richer in CP and EE than corn, which is the basic energy provider in RD.
The digestibility of dry matter (DM) in monogastric animals, particularly poultry that have short and less sacculated intestinal tracts, is greatly affected by the fibre fraction in the feed. As shown in Table 1, the NDF value in amaranth grain is high, containing cellulose and hemicellulose that are indigestible by broilers.

4.2. Heat Treatment

The increase in DMD with heat treatment suggests that this could be used to improve the efficiency of nutrient digestibility. The improvement in AMEn content could have resulted from an increasing contribution of energy-producing compounds in diets containing HTAG, in comparison with the control diet. There are reports in the fields of food and feed science that suggest heat treatment can reduce negative effects on the energetic efficiency of the grains [51]. Previous estimates of AMEn in HTAG were 2859 [32], 3040 [20], 3133 [25], 3522 [23], 3650 [22] and 3475 kcal/kg [21,33]. Differences are probably due to differences in amaranth variety, physicochemical properties and amaranth-processing methods. Raw amaranth contains acids and nitrate that can be reduced with heat treatment [25]; hence, autoclaved amaranth grain can be used in broiler diets for improved energy availability without any negative effects on health. UAG also contains antinutritive compounds such as tannins, phytic acid, oxalate, saponins, nitrates and trypsin inhibitors [52]. For this reason, heat treatment of amaranth grain may be beneficial, potentially reducing phytic acid by up to 20% [52], with consequent increase in the availability of energy and other nutrients.

4.3. Enzyme Addition

Exogenous enzymes are used for improving energy availability in poultry and swine diets. Different enzyme preparations are available for poultry feed, and their effectiveness depends on bird age, enzyme level, nature of basal diet fed and also the physical and chemical characteristics of enzymes. In the present study, the enzyme inclusion increased DMD, but there was no significant improvement in AMEn values.
In our study, the highest values for metabolisability were found in the diets containing enzymes. Generally, the diets with enzyme addition showed a higher value of DMD. Unlike HTAG, AMEn in ADs containing UAG was not affected by enzyme addition, and by increasing UAG levels, DMD was decreased significantly (p < 0.01). The main effect of the enzyme addition was to increase metabolisability and DMD by nearly 5 and 8%, respectively.
The effect of the enzyme on the cell wall of grains is to increase digestion of other nutrients and the possible improvement of AMEn [53,54]. Enzymes can reduce antinutritive compounds, non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) [55,56,57] and viscosity [54,58] in both cereal and pseudocereals such as amaranth. Enzymes potentially improve the activity of lipase and chymotrypsin enzymes [59] in poultry, and consequently they can enhance DMD [60,61,62] and improve AMEn [63,64,65]. However, the efficiency of the multienzyme additions to the diet depends on several factors such as bird age, method of processing of test ingredient and the composition and formulation of the diet [66]. In our study, HTAG showed the greatest benefit from enzyme addition at high amaranth inclusion rates, suggesting synergistic effects of enzyme and heat treatment of amaranth, that may be due to the greater opportunities for enzymatic activity when nutrients are released by heat treatment. UAG showed no such clear benefit of enzyme provision at high amaranth inclusion rates.

4.4. Experimental Method

The experimental method in this study was based on regression analysis, the advantage of which is that it can estimate energy values across several inclusion rates [22,67]. The observed AMEn values were in line with those reported by Cai et al. [9] of between 2700 and 3600 kcal/kg. Differences in variety, processing method, animal model and method of biological experiments are likely to cause discrepancies in AMEn values across different studies. The use of the regression method in this study does not adequately take into account any non-linear trends in the measured parameters’ responses to increasing the amaranth inclusion rate. Such trends were evident for several parameters, but they require elaboration with further experimentation with greater bird numbers. Of particular interest is the trend for greatest improvements at high inclusion rates, with little effect at low rates, such as was observed for the metabolisability of the diet and DM digestibility.

5. Conclusions

Amaranth, having twice the CP content and an AMEn value equal to corn grain in the processed form, offers considerable potential to poultry producers in regions suffering from water shortage or restrictions in other inputs. Using enzyme and heat treatment simultaneously for processing untreated amaranth grain improved energy value by up to 718 kcal/kg, equivalent to 22% of the AMEn content of UAG (3255 kcal/kg).
Amaranth grains are mostly considered as an energy source replacement for corn. The AMEn value of amaranth grain (A. hybridus chlorostachys) was 230 and 470 kcal more than corn and wheat grains, respectively. This additional energy in amaranth grain for poultry, coupled with the reduced water requirement during the growing period, could help significantly in dealing with water shortages, providing a feed of superior nutritional value, drought and dehydration resistance and resilience to environmental stress conditions [5], provided the feeding value is realizable.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, H.J., B.H.-G. and S.A.; writing—original draft preparation, H.J., B.H.-G. and S.A.; writing—review and editing, I.F.G., K.E.V. and C.J.C.P.; supervision, H.J. and S.A.; project administration, H.J., B.H.-G., S.A., I.F.G., K.E.V., M.I.S., R.M.B., A.S. and C.J.C.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research study was conducted with the aid of a grant of the RSF No. 22-16-00041 (Sections 2.3 and 2.4) and 21-16-00025 (Sections 2.1 and 2.2), GNU NIIMMP.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Animal Care Committee of the University of Tabriz (approval number 383, issued 7 January 2018).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data from this study are available from the corresponding author(s) upon request.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to specially thank G.H. Hosseintabar, the manager of Darvash Giah Khazar Medicinal Herbs Complex, for their financial support. This research was part of a PhD thesis, and the authors express their appreciation for the technical and scientific support and valuable assistance of the staff of the Agricultural Research Institute of the University of Tabriz.

Conflicts of Interest

There are no conflicts of interest for any author.

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Table
Table 1. Ingredients and nutrient composition of the reference diet (RD) fed to birds from 35 to 42 d of age.
Table 1. Ingredients and nutrient composition of the reference diet (RD) fed to birds from 35 to 42 d of age.
IngredientsContent, g/kg
Corn Grain570.3
Soybean Meal (SBM)321.1
Barley53.7
Vegetable Oil16.0
Di-Calcium-Phosphate 14.7
CaCO312.6
Na-Bicarbonate3.2
NaCl1.8
DL-Methionine1.6
Vitamin and Mineral Premix 15.0
Calculated nutrient composition
AMEn, kcal/kg2950
Crude Protein, g/kg190
Calcium, g/kg7.8
Available Phosphorus, g/kg3.8
Sodium, g/kg1.4
DCAB, mEq/kg250
Calculated total (digestible) amino acid content, g/kg
Arginine 12.6 (12.0)
Lysine10.1 (9.2)
Threonine7.4 (6.5)
Methionine2.8 (2.6)
Methionine + Cystine5.9 (5.2)
Tryptophan2.3 (2.1)
Glycine + Serine17.9 (15.9)
Valine9.1 (8.1)
Isoleucine8.2 (7.5)
Leucine16.4 (15.2)
Histidine5.1 (4.8)
Phenylalanine9.5 (8.8)
Phenylalanine + Tyrosine16.2 (15.1)
1 Vitamin and mineral premix includes, per kilogram of diet: 7200 IU vitamin A (transretinyl acetate); 1.75 mg thiamin (thiamin mononitrate); 6.6 mg riboflavin; 8 mg nicotinic acid; 2.5 mg pyridoxine (pyridoxine HCl); 18 ug vit B12 (ciano cobalamin; 2500 IU vit D3 (cholecalciferol); 15 mg pantothenic acid (D-calcium pantothenate); 0.4 mg D-biotin; 16 IU vit E (Dl-α-tocopherol acetate); 2.5 mg vit K (menadione); 1 mg folic acid; 400 mg choline chloride; 80 mg manganese oxide; 36 mg iron; 9 mg sulphate copper; 0.85 mg iodine; 5 mg selenium (selenium premix); 90 mg Zn (zinc oxide).
Table
Table 2. Chemical compositions of amaranth grains (A. hybridus chlorostachys) on an as-fed basis.
Table 2. Chemical compositions of amaranth grains (A. hybridus chlorostachys) on an as-fed basis.
Specification, g/kgUAG 1HTAG 2
DM909904
CP169168
EE5752
CF106101
NDF339.7348.2
ADF61.968.4
Ash6156
NFE 3607623
NFC 4373376
GE, kcal/kg42774258
1 Untreated amaranth grain. 2 Heat-treated amaranth grain. 3 Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) = 1000 − (CP + EE + CF + Ash). 4 Nonfibrous carbohydrates (NFC) = 1000 − (CP + EE + NDF + Ash).
Table
Table 3. AMEn, metabolisability and dry matter digestibility (DMD) values of broiler chickens fed different levels of untreated amaranth grain (UAG) with (+E) and without (−E) enzyme from 35 to 42 d of age in the second experiment.
Table 3. AMEn, metabolisability and dry matter digestibility (DMD) values of broiler chickens fed different levels of untreated amaranth grain (UAG) with (+E) and without (−E) enzyme from 35 to 42 d of age in the second experiment.
FactorAMEn, kcal/kgMetabolisability, %Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD), %
Untreated amaranth grain
(UAG), g/kg
02869 b75.59 a66.65 a
1502606 d70.17 c61.11 c
3002732 c70.12 c60.10 c
4502889 b72.45 b63.02 b
6003189 a74.99 a59.83 c
SEM20.830.390.63
p-value0.00010.00010.0001
Enzyme (±E), g/kg
0 (−E)284870.7059.75
0.55 (+E)286674.6264.53
SEM13.170.250.40
p-value0.350.00010.0001
UAG × Enzyme
0 × 02789 cd74.15 bc65.86 ab
150 × 02693 e70.39 d60.20 d
300 × 02723 de67.23 e56.48 e
450 × 02812 c69.13 d60.69 d
600 × 03224 a72.63 c55.54 e
0 × 0.552949 b77.04 a67.44 a
150 × 0.0552518 f69.95 d62.01 cd
300 × 0.552742 cde73.01 c63.73 bc
450 × 0.552966 b75.78 ab65.35 ab
600 × 0.553154 a77.35 a64.12 bc
SEM29.460.560.88
p-value0.0010.0010.019
a,b,c,d,e,f means within each column with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 4. AMEn, metabolisability and dry matter digestibility (DMD) values of broiler chickens fed different levels of heat-treated amaranth grain (HTAG) with (+E) and without (−E) enzyme from 35 to 42 d of age in the first experiment.
Table 4. AMEn, metabolisability and dry matter digestibility (DMD) values of broiler chickens fed different levels of heat-treated amaranth grain (HTAG) with (+E) and without (−E) enzyme from 35 to 42 d of age in the first experiment.
Factor AMEn, kcal/kgMetabolisability, %Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD), %
Heat-treated amaranth grain
(HTAG), g/kg
03060 d76.74 c67.11 a
1503136 d75.83 cd65.04 b
3003251 c74.97 d59.57 d
4503556 b78.66 b63.28 bc
6003788 a79.94 a62.69 c
SEM27.860.390.66
p-value0.00010.00010.0001
Enzyme (±E), g/kg
0 (−E)332976.1162.36
0.55 (+E)339778.3564.72
SEM17.620.240.42
p-value0.0020.00010.011
HTAG × Enzyme
0 × 03021 f75.62 e64.62 b
150 × 03107 ef75.14 e65.59 b
300 × 03236 d72.49 f63.54 b
450 × 03514 c78.22 bcd63.54b
600 × 03720 b79.08 bc62.56 b
0 × 0.553098 ef77.86 bcd69.60 a
150 × 0.553166 de76.53 de64.49 b
300 × 0.553266 d77.44 cd63.65 b
450 × 0.553597 c79.10 b63.03 b
600 × 0.553855 a80.80 a62.83 b
SEM39.400.550.94
p-value0.0320.0040.007
a,b,c,d,e,f means within each column with different superscripts differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 5. Regression equations relating UAG±E- and HTAG±E-associated AMEn content to intake of ADs.
Table 5. Regression equations relating UAG±E- and HTAG±E-associated AMEn content to intake of ADs.
Treatment 1Regression Equation 2r2
UAG−EY = 3359.4 (118.76) x − 104.05 (32.88)0.98
UAG+EY = 3370.3 (46.04) x − 105.75 (12.76)0.99
HTAG−EY = 3939.8 (75.92) x − 111.01 (21.02)0.99
HTAG+EY = 4102.7 (85.12) x − 129.28 (23.58)0.99
1 UAG−E: untreated amaranth grain without (−) enzyme, UAG+E: untreated amaranth grain with (+) enzyme, HTAG−E: heat-treated amaranth grain without (−) enzyme, HTAG+E: heat-treated amaranth grain with (+) enzyme. 2 Numerical values in parentheses are SE, intercepts are in kcal, line slopes are in kcal/kg of DM. X: amaranth grain intake (%).Y: AMEn from amaranth grain intake (kcal/kg).
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Janmohammadi, H.; Hosseintabar-Ghasemabad, B.; Amirdahri, S.; Gorlov, I.F.; Vladimirovna, K.E.; Slozhenkina, M.I.; Bilal, R.M.; Seidavi, A.; Phillips, C.J.C. The Energy Value for Broiler Chickens of Heat-Treated and Untreated Amaranth Grain, with and without Enzyme Addition. Agriculture 2022, 12, 1810. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111810

AMA Style

Janmohammadi H, Hosseintabar-Ghasemabad B, Amirdahri S, Gorlov IF, Vladimirovna KE, Slozhenkina MI, Bilal RM, Seidavi A, Phillips CJC. The Energy Value for Broiler Chickens of Heat-Treated and Untreated Amaranth Grain, with and without Enzyme Addition. Agriculture. 2022; 12(11):1810. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111810

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Janmohammadi, Hossein, Babak Hosseintabar-Ghasemabad, Saeid Amirdahri, Ivan Fedorovich Gorlov, Karpenko Ekaterina Vladimirovna, Marina Ivanovna Slozhenkina, Rana Muhammad Bilal, Alireza Seidavi, and Clive Julian Christie Phillips. 2022. "The Energy Value for Broiler Chickens of Heat-Treated and Untreated Amaranth Grain, with and without Enzyme Addition" Agriculture 12, no. 11: 1810. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111810

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