Next Article in Journal
Weight Regain after Bariatric Surgery
Next Article in Special Issue
Transoral Laser Microsurgery versus Robot-Assisted Surgery for Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Tongue Base (Oncological and Functional Results)—A Retrospective GETTEC Multicenter Study
Previous Article in Journal
Frequency and Outcomes of Patients Presenting with Non-ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction (NSTEMI) without Standard Modifiable Risk Factors: A US Healthcare Experience
Previous Article in Special Issue
Enteral Nutrition during Radiotherapy for Oropharyngeal Cancers: Prevalence and Prognostic Factors Based on HPV Status (A GETTEC Study)
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
JCM
Volume 12
Issue 9
10.3390/jcm12093264
jcm-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Oral Cavity Squamous Cell Carcinoma Risk Factors: State of the Art

by
Lara Nokovitch
1,
Charles Maquet
1,
Frédéric Crampon
1,
Ihsène Taihi
2,3,
Lise-Marie Roussel
4,5,
Rais Obongo
4,5,
François Virard
6,7,
Béatrice Fervers
8,9 and
Sophie Deneuve
1,5,10,*
1
Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, CHU Rouen, 76000 Rouen, France
2
Oral Surgery Department, Rothschild Hospital, 75012 Paris, France
3
URP 2496, Laboratory of Orofacial Pathologies, Imaging and Biotherapies, UFR Odontology, Health Department, Université Paris Cité, 92120 Montrouge, France
4
Department of Head and Neck Cancer and ENT Surgery, Centre Henri Becquerel, 76038 Rouen, France
5
Rouen Cancer Federation, 76000 Rouen, France
6
INSERM U1052-CNRS UMR5286, Cancer Research Center, Centre Léon Bérard, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69008 Lyon, France
7
Faculté d’Odontologie, Hospices Civils de Lyon, University of Lyon, 69002 Lyon, France
8
Département Prévention Cancer Environnement, Centre Léon Bérard, 69008 Lyon, France
9
INSERM UMR 1296, “Radiations: Défense, Santé, Environnement”, Centre Léon Bérard, 69008 Lyon, France
10
Quantification en Imagerie Fonctionnelle-Laboratoire d’Informatique, du Traitement de l’Information et des Systèmes Equipe d’Accueil 4108 (QuantIF-LITIS EA4108), University of Rouen, 76000 Rouen, France
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12(9), 3264; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12093264
Submission received: 1 March 2023 / Revised: 24 April 2023 / Accepted: 26 April 2023 / Published: 3 May 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnosis, Treatment and Management in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma)
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Head and neck (HN) squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) originate from the epithelial cells of the mucosal linings of the upper aerodigestive tract, which includes the oral cavity, the pharynx, the larynx, and the sinonasal cavities. There are many associated risk factors, including alcohol drinking coupled with tobacco use, which accounts for 70% to 80% of HNSCCs. Human papilloma virus (HPV) is another independent risk factor for oropharyngeal SCC, but it is only a minor contributor to oral cavity SCC (OSCC). Betel quid chewing is also an established risk factor in southeast Asian countries. However, OSCC, and especially oral tongue cancer, incidence has been reported to be increasing in several countries, suggesting risk factors that have not been identified yet. This review summarizes the established risk factors for oral cavity squamous cell carcinomas and examines other undemonstrated risk factors for HNSCC.

1. Introduction

Head and neck (HN) squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) originate from the epithelial cells of the mucosal linings of the upper aerodigestive tract, which includes the oral cavity, the pharynx, the larynx, and the sinonasal cavities [1]. Alcohol drinking coupled with tobacco use accounts for 70 to 80% of HNSCCs [2]. More recently, human papilloma virus (HPV) has been identified as an independent causative agent for oropharyngeal SCC [3]. Moreover, betel quid chewing is a major risk factor for oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) in many southeast Asian countries, such as India, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, etc. [4,5,6,7,8,9].
While the overall incidence of HNSCC continues to decline worldwide, owing to decreased tobacco and alcohol consumption [10,11], oral tongue cancer incidence has been reported to be increasing in several countries [12,13,14]. Interestingly, HPV seems to be involved in only a minor subset of squamous cell carcinomas of the oral cavity [15]. Thus, a rising proportion of patients with HNSCC appear to have neither a significant smoking nor drinking history [16]. This suggests the existence of risk factors not yet identified, or new exposures to established risk factors other than tobacco and alcohol.
This review summarizes the literature about HNSCC risk factors, with an emphasis on established and suspected OSCC risk factors, as well as the role of these factors in patient management and survival.

2. Materials and Methods

OSCC was defined according to the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology, third edition (ICD-O-3): C02 to C06. We searched PubMed from 1960 to December 2022, using search terms related to risk factors, etiology, and occupational exposures combined with search terms pertaining to oral cancer sites (Table 1); we further widened the research to HNSCC overall. Human-based epidemiological studies written in English and French were considered. The electronic search was supplemented by hand-searching references from the reference lists of the identified publications. We also searched the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) monographs (http://monographs.iarc.fr/, accessed on 1 March 2023).
Possibly relevant articles were selected through an assessment of titles and abstracts. Studies were selected according to the following criteria: study design (cohort or case–control study); original study or meta-analyses; studies providing information on the association between cancer risk (effect size) and occupational exposure (i.e., included odds ratio [OR], relative risk [RR], standardized incidence ratio [SIR], or mortality rate ratio [SMR]).
When available, we preferentially selected meta-analyses. When an association was consistently supported by numerous studies, the most recent data were retained.

3. Results

3.1. Established Predisposing Condition for OSCC

Several predisposing conditions have been identified for OSCC, as discussed in the following subsections.

3.1.1. Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders

The oral cavity can present potentially malignant disorders. Premalignant lesions are the most common ones, such as leucoplakia, proliferative verrucous leukoplakia, erythroplasia, oral lichen planus, and oral submucous fibrosis, with different potentials for malignant transformation [17]. The WHO (2005) classifies precancerous lesions according to the level of dysplasia: mild, moderate, severe, and in situ carcinoma [17]. Leukoplakia corresponds to a clinical entity defined, by default, as a “patch or white plaque that cannot be characterized clinically or pathologically as another disease” [17]. This lesion is generally associated with tobacco and alcohol consumption [17]. Oral leukoplakia prevalence worldwide is around 2% [18]. The annual rate of malignant transformation of oral leukoplakia is estimated to be 1% [18]. Risk factors for malignant transformation include the presence of dysplasia, female gender, duration of leukoplakia, location with respect to the tongue or floor of the mouth, occurrence in a non-smoker, size over 2 cm, and non-homogeneous type [18,19].
Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia is a rare entity of unknown cause, characterized mainly by its progressive, aggressive, multifocal, and almost inevitable evolution towards squamous cell carcinoma or verrucous carcinoma [20].
Erythroplasia is a “red velvety lesion that cannot be characterized clinically or pathologically as resulting from another condition” [17]. Surgical resection is recommended due to the higher malignant risk of these lesions compared to leukoplakia, as they are frequently associated with dysplasia and in situ carcinoma [19].
Oral lichen planus is a chronic inflammatory skin and mucous membrane disease that evolves into flare-ups. Its etiology is not clearly elucidated [21]. It manifests itself in several oral clinical forms, of which the three most frequent are reticulated (quiescent), erosive (active), and atrophic (late or post-lichenic) [21]. The malignant transformation of oral lichen planus reported in high-methodological-quality papers was 2.28% [21].
Submucosal fibrosis is a chronic disease of the oral mucosa that affects mainly Asian populations aged 20 to 40 (who consume spicy food, chew Betel quid, etc.) [22]. It is characterized by vesicular stomatitis evolving into erosions with a burning sensation. In the fibrous stage, the mucosa atrophies and loses its elasticity, limiting its function [22]. Cases of malignant transformation have been reported, with a cancer rate in patients with submucosal fibrosis in southeast Asia of about 4.2% [22].

3.1.2. Fanconi Anemia

Fanconi anemia is a hereditary syndrome characterized by bone marrow failure due to a mutational defect in the FANC genes [23]. It is inherited in an autosomal X-linked recessive pattern [23]. FANC genes normally code for proteins that repair damaged DNA and contribute to genomic stability [23]. The risk of HNSCC in patients suffering from Fanconi anemia is 500 to 700 times higher than in the general population, with oral cavity HNSCC being the most frequently observed location [24].

3.1.3. Dyskeratosis Congenita

Dyskeratosis congenita is an hereditary syndrome with dysfunction of telomere maintenance, leading to leukoplakia that can turn into oral cancer [25]. Squamous cell carcinoma is inherited in most cases, and may be X-linked, autosomal dominant, or autosomal recessive, with variable penetrance [26].

3.1.4. Other Genetic Predispositions

Some other genetic determinants of HNSCC have been identified, as recent data suggest that common polymorphisms in DNA repair enzymes, cell-cycle control proteins, apoptotic pathway members, and Fanconi anemia-associated genes likely modulate susceptibility to HNSCC [27].

3.1.5. Familial Aggregation of Cases Apart from Hereditary Syndromes

The French case–control study ICARE including 689 cases of OSCC and 3481 controls, found an increased risk of OSCC for patients with a family history of HNSCC, with an OR of 1.9 CI [1–2.8], after adjusting for tobacco and alcohol consumption [28]. The INHANCE consortium found an increased risk of OSCC in cases of first-degree family history, after adjusting for tobacco and alcohol consumption (OR = 1.53 CI [1.11–2.11]) [29]. The risk increased with the number of family members with OSCC [29]. This risk was even higher in young people below 45 years of age if the history of cancer also affected a young individual (OR = 2.27 CI [1.26–4.1]) [30]. Other studies also reported an increased risk in cases of family history, without adjusting for tobacco and alcohol consumption (data unavailable in this study) [31].

3.1.6. Immune Disorders

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) immunodepression is associated with a higher risk of oral cancer in smokers but not in non-smokers, according to a Swiss cohort of 7304 infected patients, with a standardized incidence ratio (SIR) of 4.1, CI [2.1–7.4] [32]. Cancer registry data from New York demonstrated that HIV-infected individuals developing oral cancer were, on average, over a decade younger than non-infected individuals [33]. Immunosuppression related to post-organ transplant treatments was also mentioned as a potential risk factor for HNSCC, especially for those of the oral cavity (SIR = 6.32 CI [3.7–10.1]) in a cohort of 4604 patients [34]. Multisystem chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) was a significant risk factor for oral cancer (RR = 2.9, p < 0.001) among patients after 1 year post-transplant [35]. Moreover, oral GVHD induces oral lichenoid lesions that can turn into OSCC [36].
Allogenic hematopoietic cell transplantation is also predisposing to OSCC in a cohort study of 4905 patients, with an SIR of 13.8 CI [11.0–17.2] [37]. In such a population, however, it is difficult to attribute the increased risk of cancer to whole-body irradiation or immunosuppression [37].

3.2. Carcinogenic Agents for OSCC Classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer with Sufficient Evidence

Tobacco and alcohol represent the two main risk factors for HNSCC [38,39]. Other carcinogens are also recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), with various levels of evidence depending on the HNSCC subsites (Table 2) [40].

3.2.1. Tobacco

Tobacco in all its forms, including smoke, snuff, and chew [41], has been recognized as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) by the IARC since 1985 [42], with sufficient evidence for the oral cavity [43].
Numerous studies have shown a strong association between tobacco consumption and different HNSCC subsites in men and women. A meta-analysis from 2008 suggests a relative risk (RR) for OSCC of 3.43 CI [2.37–4.94] for smokers and 1.40 CI [0.99–2.00] for former smokers [44].
The risk rises with the number of cigarettes per day and the duration of tobacco consumption, and decreases proportionally to the length of time since cessation [45].
According to the IARC, the tobacco-attributable fraction for oral cavity and pharynx cancers was 71.4% in 2015 (80.2% for men and 41.9% for women) [46].
Passive smoking was recognized as carcinogenic, with limited evidence for the pharynx and larynx [43,47]. A recent case–control study reported that passive smoking is also a risk factor, with sufficient evidence for OSCC [48].
Moreover, except for snuff, all smokeless tobacco products are strongly associated with oral cancer incidence. Shammah showed the highest association OR with 95% confidence intervals (OR = 38.74; CI [19.50–76.96]), followed by oral snuff (OR = 11.80; CI [8.45–16.49), gutka (OR = 8.67; CI [3.59–20.93]), tobacco with betel quid (OR, 7.74; CI [5.38–11.13]), toombak (OR = 4.72; CI [2.88–7.73]), and unspecified chewing tobacco (OR = 4.72; CI [3.13–7.11]) [49].
In addition to being a major risk factor, continuing tobacco smoking represents a major risk factor for recurrence and second primary occurrence, and is associated with poorer survival in HNSCC, including OSCC [50,51,52]. Tobacco cessation after HNSCC diagnosis appears to be an independent predictor of treatment response and long-term survival in a retrospective case–control study from 2022 [53]. Long-term abstinence (>10 pack years) seems to improve significantly overall survival and HNSCC-specific survival in a prospective study from 2023 [54].

3.2.2. Alcohol

Alcohol’s carcinogenic effects derive from the endogenous production of acetaldehyde during its absorption [43]. Acetaldehyde in alcoholic beverages is considered carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) by the IARC [43]. Some populations from eastern Asia presenting mutations of the gene coding for enzymes metabolizing alcohol (alcohol dehydrogenase: ADH) and acetaldehyde (aldehyde dehydrogenase: ALDH) accumulate this molecule and have a higher risk of cancer [55].
A cohort study carried out on more than 490 000 individuals in the United States found a RR of OSCC of 1.52 CI [1.01–2.27] for men consuming more than three glasses of alcohol per day, and a RR of 2.81 CI [1.29–6.11] for women consuming the same amount [56]. A meta-analysis from 2001 finds a meta-RR for a daily intake of more than 100 g of alcohol per day of 6.01 CI [5.46–6.62] for oral cavity and pharynx cancers [57].
Moreover, moderate alcohol consumption (10–20 units/week) is found to increase the risk of mortality independent of other prognostic variables in patients treated for HNSCC [58]. Alcohol use also seems to be an independent predictor of disease-specific survival after treatment for OSCC [59].

3.2.3. Synergistic Effect of Tobacco and Alcohol

Alcohol and tobacco consumption are closely linked in populations [60], probably due to cultural reasons and the tendency of addictive personalities to be more prone to multiplying addictions [61]. Moreover, heavy smokers—with a high number of pack years (PY)—drink more than light smokers with a low number of PY, and heavy drinkers smoke more than light drinkers [62]. In addition, in the case of joint consumption, the effects of alcohol and tobacco are synergistic and multiply instead of adding up [63]. Therefore, if the RR of OSCC is similar for the heavy smoker (RR = 5.8) and drinker (7.4), it tends to multiply these two values with a RR of 37.7 for drinker and smoker patients [64]. Acetaldehyde production is increased by the association of tobacco and alcohol, which might explain the observed synergism [65]. Ethanol might also increase mucous permeability to carcinogens [66]. Indeed, data from an animal model showed that 25% ethanol, alone or associated with nicotine, increased oral cavity mucous membrane permeability to N-nitrosonornicotine (a carcinogen from tobacco) [67]. Thus, in 2009, the fraction attributable to tobacco and alcohol was 64% for OSCC and 72% for pharynx cancer [55].
Smoking and drinking have a detrimental effect on the survival of patients treated for OSCC. In a prospective study including 1165 patients with OSCC, smoking and/or drinking patients had higher all-cause mortality and oral cancer-specific mortality compared to non-smoking and non-drinking patients [68]. This stresses the importance of systematically offering smoking and alcohol cessation to HNSCC patients, including patients with OSCC. Support should be proposed systematically by healthcare professionals concomitant to cancer treatment, especially to patients who are more vulnerable and might need extra support to quit smoking and drinking [69].

3.2.4. Betel Quid and Areca Nut

Betel, which is consumed by chewing, is a mix of leaves from a climbing plant named betel and areca nuts, sometimes mixed with tobacco [4]. Nitrosamines contained in the areca nut mix with saliva and are often responsible for lesions [4]. The IARC has considered betel carcinogenic to humans since 2003 for the oral cavity, with or without tobacco [43]. It is particularly appreciated in India and southeast Asia, with 600 million estimated users in 1999 [70].
A case–control study from 2003 found an OR of 1.83 CI [1.43–2.33] for betel used with tobacco for OSCC [71]. A meta-analysis from 2007 on 11 studies conducted on the effects of betel alone (not associated with tobacco) and adjusted for tobacco consumption reported an OR of 3.50 CI [2.16–5.65] for OSCC [72], whereas the OR associated with tobacco calculated in an Indian case–control study was 5.05 CI [4.26–5.97] for OSCC [71].

3.2.5. HPV

HPV16 has been classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by the IARC since 1995 [73], particularly due to its role in the carcinogenesis of SCC of the cervix uteri.
The evidence has been deemed sufficient for a causal relationship between HPV16 infection and certain cancers of the oral cavity since 1995, whereas the evidence remains limited for HPV18 (Table 3) [73].
Of note, HPV has become, over time, the main cause of HNSCC in the United States, and in northern Europe [74,75]. However, HPV is reported to be responsible for less than 4% of OSCCs [15].
The carcinogenicity of HPV involves several mechanisms, including immortalization of cells, genomic instability, DNA damage repair deficiency, and anti-apoptotic activity [76]. The integration of HPV DNA into the host genome is a key event enabling the expression of viral oncogenes E6 and E7 [76]. E6 protein binds to p53 protein, preventing it from binding to DNA and inhibiting its anti-oncogenic role [76].
Despite their more advanced presentation at diagnosis, HPV-positive HNSCCs, and, more specifically, oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma, have improved survival, irrespective of treatment modality [77,78,79]. Yet, their role in OSCC patients remains minor.

3.3. Other Potential Risk Factors for OSCC

Apart from the risk factors involved in the occurrence of OSCC with sufficient evidence according to the IARC, and predisposing conditions, some other toxins might also be involved in the occurrence of these cancers. However, the difficulty in investigating OSCC risk factors is that many studies look at the different subsites of HNSCC altogether, and do not allow specific conclusions for the oral cavity. The following sections summarize the available data on suspected risk factors for HNSCC.

3.3.1. Other Addictions

Cannabis consumption is often associated with tobacco, and the illegal nature of its usage makes it difficult to evaluate its role in the development of oral cancer. Its carcinogenic effect in smoked form has not been demonstrated yet for HNSCC; current data report conflicting results and do not support a causal relationship with OSCC [80]. Therefore, its role in the occurrence of HNSCC is controversial [81]. A case–control study by Rosenblatt et al. found no difference between regular cannabis users and controls, with an OR of 0.9 CI [0.6–1.3] [80]. Another study reported an OR of 2.6 CI [1.1–6.6] with a dose-effect response, with an OR of 5 for heavy consumers (more than one cannabis joint per day for 5 years) [82].
In Iran, a case–control study found a significant relationship between opium addiction and OSCC, with an OR of 4 CI [1.2–13.6] [83], and a recent meta-analysis found a four-fold rise in the risk of head and neck cancer among opium users compared to non-users [84].

3.3.2. Mouthwash

Mouthwash usage was suspected to be associated with oral cavity development, as these prepared products contain alcohol in small amounts. Acetaldehyde, the first genotoxic metabolite of ethanol, was found in the saliva of patients regularly using mouthwashes [85]. The ARCAGE study found an OR of 3.23 CI [1.68–6.19] for more than three mouthwashes per day [86]. However, the relationship between mouthwash usage and OSCC is not supported by strong epidemiological evidence [87,88].

3.3.3. Air Pollution

The IARC considers that the current evidence is insufficient to incriminate air pollution in the occurrence of any sub-localization of HNSCC [89,90].

3.3.4. Endocrine Factors

Due to the high proportion of women in patients with OSCC without identified risk factors, an endocrine hypothesis has been suggested [16]. The results of a recent cohort study suggest that menopausal hormone therapy increases the risk of OSCC in postmenopausal women, with an oral estrogen hazard ratio (HR) of 1.633 CI [1.35–1.976] for oral estrogen and an HR of 1.633 CI [1.35–1.976] for tibolone [91]. Moreover, a potential association with endocrine disrupting agents such as bisphenol A has been suggested, but is so far not supported by epidemiological evidence [92].

3.3.5. Occupational Exposures

Several occupational exposures are suspected to play a role in the occurrence of HNSCC (Table 4), and cancers of the oral cavity, in particular. Occupations with an increased risk are butchers, machinists, leather workers, textile industry workers, and sugar cane producers [93].
The available studies are difficult to interpret due to a frequent association with tobacco and alcohol consumption, and the unprecise distinction of HNSCC subsites. If an over-representation of occupational and environmental exposures was observed in a prospective cohort of HNSCC [116], no specific agent was significantly associated with non-smokers and non-drinkers apart from asbestosis for larynx cancer.
Asbestosis is the only occupational risk factor with a level of evidence recognized as sufficient by the IARC, and only for the larynx [94,97]. The ICARE study also demonstrated an additive effect for asbestosis exposure with alcohol consumption (RR = 4.75 CI [−4.29–11.12]), and a supra-additive effect for asbestosis exposure with tobacco consumption (RR = 8.50 CI [0.71–23.81]), as well as for asbestosis exposure with joint tobacco and alcohol consumption (RR = 26.57 CI [11.52–67.88]) [117].

3.4. Other Considered Individual Risk Factors for HNSCC

3.4.1. Plummer–Vinson Syndrome

The Plummer–Vinson syndrome (or Kelly Patterson), including esophageal webs, iron-deficiency anemia, and gastrointestinal mucosa atrophy, is frequently associated with HNSCC of the retro-cricoid area (i.e., the hypopharynx) [118]. The improvement of iron intakes lowered its incidence considerably [118]. The mechanism underlying the hypopharyngeal cancer in this condition is poorly understood [118].

3.4.2. Infectious Agents Other Than HPV

Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is an independent risk factor with sufficient evidence for nasopharyngeal cancer, according to the IARC [119]. While viral hypotheses have been investigated, no convincing link between OSCC and HPV, Herpes Simplex Virus, or EBV has been found [120]. Conversely, Herpes Zoster Virus infection may be protective against OSCC in a nationwide population-based matched control study, with an HR of 0.41 CI [0.33–0.50] in patients diagnosed with HZV infection [120].

3.4.3. Dietary Factors

Numerous studies have suggested that a diet low in fruits, carotenoids, or green vegetables is associated with a higher risk of HNSCC [121]. A study from the INHANCE consortium aggregating 14,520 HNSCC of any subsite and 2337 controls from 22 case–control studies found a protective role for the consumption of fruits (OR = 0.52 CI [0.43–0.62]) and vegetables (OR = 0.66 CI [0.49–0.90]). The consumption of red meat (OR = 1.40 CI [1.13–1.74]) and processed meat (OR = 1.37 CI [1.14–1.65]) was associated with an increased risk of HNSCC [122]. Other studies from the INHANCE consortium found a protective role of vitamin E [123], vitamin C [124], carotenoids [125], and folates [126]. The consumption of dairy products also appears to have a protective role in a case–control study including 959 patients with HNSCC and 2877 controls [127].
The data regarding tea are contradictory, and they are sometimes reported as protective [111]. However, hot mate consumption (categorized as Group 2A by the IARC) appears to increase the risk of HNSCC in a recent meta-analysis by Weber Mello et al., with an OR = 2.24 CI [1.74–2.87] [128]. Coffee would also have a protective role in a meta-analysis from 2011, with a meta-risk of 0.64 CI [0.51–0.80] for SCC of the oral cavity [129].

3.4.4. Body Mass Index

A study from the INHANCE consortium, including 17,666 cases and 28,198 controls, demonstrated a reverse association between HNSCC and waist circumference (adjusted OR of 0.91 CI [0.86–0.95] for a 10 cm increase in waist circumference for men; adjusted OR of 0.86 CI [0.79–0.93] for a 10 cm increase in waist circumference for women) [130]. The relationships between body mass index (BMI) and HNSCC are different among studies, and their analysis is complex [130]. Indeed, smoking and drinking patients are more frequently underweight. The BMI modifies alcohol and tobacco effects in the INHANCE consortium study for oral cavity and pharynx cancers, but not for larynx cancer [130]. In another study by Gaudet et al., reflecting data from 1,941,300 participants, including 3760 HNSCC, the waist circumference and the waist–hip ratio were positively associated with the risk of HNSCC, regardless of smoking status, whereas no association with the BMI was observed for never-smokers [131]. Furthermore, an inverse association was found between height and HNSCC risk (adjusted OR per 10 cm height increase = 0.91 CI [0.86–0.95] for men; adjusted OR = 0.86 CI [0.79–0.93] for women) by the INHANCE consortium in a pooled analysis [29].
Moreover, a pooled analysis including 612 cases and 5580 controls reported a decreased risk of OSCC for patients who practice moderate physical activity with an OR of 0.74 (CI [0.56–0.97]) or intensive physical activity with an OR of 0.53 CI [0.32–0.88] [132].
Nutrition management is crucial to improving the clinical outcome and survival of patients with HNSCC [133]. Thus, in a prospective study involving 1395 patients with OSCC, patients with a BMI < 18.5 kg/m2 had a poor survival outcome (HR = 1.585 CI [1.207–2.082]) [134]. Compared with patients with better nutritional status, chemotherapy was also significantly associated with poorer overall survival in malnourished OSCC patients [134].

3.4.5. Dental Hygiene

The INHANCE consortium established an association between oral hygiene and OSCC, with a decreased risk being observed for less than five missing teeth, with an OR of 0.78 CI [0.74–0.82], an annual visit to the dentist (OR = 0.82 CI [0.78–0.87]), daily tooth brushing (OR = 0.83 CI [0.79–0.88]), and the absence of gum disease (OR = 0.94 CI [0.89–0.99]) [135]. No relationship was observed with the wearing of dentures [135]. Other authors found consistent results and mentioned the lack of dental hygiene as a potential risk factor for HNSCC [136].
Chronic traumas were also suggested as a possible cause of SCC of the oral cavity in a meta-analysis incriminating dentures [137] (OR = 3.90 CI [2.48–6.13]), and by some authors alleging the argument frequency, with the most common location of OSCC being the free edge of the tongue, a possible trauma site (unlike the dorsum of the tongue) [138]. Chronic inflammation might also play a role [139].

3.4.6. Socio-Economical Aspects

HNSCCs are more likely to affect socially deprived people, both in France [140] and worldwide [141,142]. Socially deprived people present a higher risk of HNSCC after adjusting for lifestyle risks such as smoking and drinking [141,142]. A study of the national register of cancers, FRANCIM [143], showed an increased risk of HNSCC in socially deprived populations by attributing to each case of HNSCC a social level measured by the European Deprivation Index (EDI) according to the place of residence. Perceptual occupational psychosocial status (SIOPS) appears to be the strongest socioeconomic factor relative to socioeconomic position and manual/non-manual work in a recent pooled case–control study of the INHANCE consortium [144].

4. Conclusions

To conclude, tobacco and alcohol consumption remain the main risk factors for OSCC in Europe. Betel quid chewing is also an established risk in southeast Asian countries. Since the 1950s, many countries have campaigned against tobacco and alcohol. The decrease in the prevalence of tobacco and alcohol consumption should result in a decrease in the incidence of HNSCC, and, in a more comprehensive manner, in the incidence of non-HPV-related HNSCC. However, a rise in OSCC incidence is observed. Other risk factors might emerge in the upcoming years and explain the reported diverging incidence trends of oral cancer, especially those regarding oral tongue cancer reported worldwide. For now, the dominant effects of tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking overshadow other potential risk factors. In addition, it is possible that the development of oral cancer in non-smoking, non-drinking patients may require a combination of two conditions or exposures, making their identification complex. Further studies are needed to better understand the observed increasing incidence of oral cancer in non-smoking and non-drinking patients.
Moreover, in patients with OSCC, smoking and alcohol consumption are associated with poorer survival, stressing the importance of systemically offering support for alcohol and tobacco cessation. The increase in OSCC incidence is further leading to more oral cancer survivors requiring follow-up. This is all the more important given the more frequent local relapse, especially in non-smokers and non-drinkers with OSCC.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.D. and B.F.; methodology, S.D. and B.F.; formal analysis, S.D.; investigation, S.D.; data curation, S.D.; writing—original draft preparation, L.N.; writing—review and editing, L.N., S.D., I.T., F.C., C.M., L.-M.R., R.O. and F.V.; supervision, B.F. and S.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study did not require ethical approval.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data are available upon request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
HNHead and neck
SCCSquamous cell carcinoma
HPVHuman papilloma virus
OCDInternational Classification of Diseases for Oncology
IARCInternational Agency for Research on Cancer
ODOdds ratio
RRRelative risk
SIRStandardized incidence ratio
SMRMortality rate ratio
WHOWorld Health Organization
CIConfidence interval
HIVHuman immunodeficiency virus
OSCCOral cavity squamous cell carcinoma
GVHDGraft-versus-host disease
ADHAlcohol dehydrogenase
ALDHAldehyde dehydrogenase
PYPack years
HRHazard ratio
EBVEpstein–Barr virus
BMIBody mass index

References

  1. Leemans, C.R.; Snijders, P.J.; Brakenhoff, R.H. The molecular landscape of head and neck cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2018, 18, 269–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Marziliano, A.; Teckie, S.; Diefenbach, M.A. Alcohol—Related head and neck cancer: Summary of the literature. Head Neck 2020, 42, 732–738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Argiris, A.; Karamouzis, M.V.; Raben, D.; Ferris, R.L. Head and neck cancer. Lancet 2008, 371, 1695–1709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Guha, N.; Warnakulasuriya, S.; Vlaanderen, J.; Straif, K. Betel quid chewing and the risk of oral and oropharyngeal cancers: A meta-analysis with implications for cancer control. Int. J. Cancer 2014, 135, 1433–1443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Jeng, J.; Chang, M.; Hahn, L. Role of areca nut in betel quid-associated chemical carcinogenesis: Current awareness and future perspectives. Oral Oncol. 2001, 37, 477–492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Amarasinghe, H.K.; Usgodaarachchi, U.S.; Johnson, N.W.; Lalloo, R.; Warnakulasuriya, S. Betel-quid chewing with or without tobacco is a major risk factor for oral potentially malignant disorders in Sri Lanka: A case-control study. Oral Oncol. 2010, 46, 297–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Amarasinghe, H.K.; Usgodaarachchi, U.S.; Johnson, N.W.; Warnakulasuriya, S. High Prevalence of Lifestyle Factors At-tributable for Oral Cancer, and of Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders in Rural Sri Lanka. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. APJCP 2018, 19, 2485–2492. [Google Scholar]
  8. Cheng, R.H.; Wang, Y.P.; Chang, J.Y.F.; Pan, Y.H.; Chang, M.C.; Jeng, J.H. Genetic Susceptibility and Protein Expression of Extracel-lular Matrix Turnover-Related Genes in Oral Submucous Fibrosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 8104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Lee, C.H.; Ko, A.M.S.; Yen, C.F.; Chu, K.S.; Gao, Y.J.; Warnakulasuriya, S.; Sunarjo Ibrahim, S.O.; Zain, R.B.; Patrick, W.K.; Ko, Y.C. Betel-quid dependence and oral potentially malig-nant disorders in six Asian countries. Br. J. Psychiatry 2012, 201, 383–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Ribassin-Majed, L.; Hill, C. Trends in tobacco-attributable mortality in France. Eur. J. Public Health 2015, 25, 824–828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Holford, T.R.; Meza, R.; Warner, K.E.; Meernik, C.; Jeon, J.; Moolgavkar, S.H.; Levy, D.T. Tobacco control and the reduction in smok-ing-related premature deaths in the United States, 1964–2012. JAMA 2014, 311, 164–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Renou, A.; Guizard, A.-V.; Chabrillac, E.; Defossez, G.; Grosclaude, P.; Deneuve, S.; Vergez, S.; Lapotre-Ledoux, B.; Plouvier, S.D.; Dupret-Bories, A.; et al. Evolution of the Incidence of Oral Cavity Cancers in the Elderly from 1990 to 2018. J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12, 1071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Deneuve, S.; Pérol, O.; Dantony, E.; Guizard, A.; Bossard, N.; Virard, F.; Fervers, B.; FRANCIM Network (French National Network of Cancer Registries). Diverging incidence trends of oral tongue cancer compared to other head and neck cancers in young adults in France. Int. J. Cancer 2022, 150, 1301–1309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Ng, J.H.; Iyer, N.G.; Tan, M.-H.; Edgren, G. Changing epidemiology of oral squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue: A global study. Head Neck 2016, 39, 297–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Nauta, I.H.; Heideman, D.A.M.; Brink, A.; Steen, B.; Bloemena, E.; Koljenović, S.; de Jong, R.J.B.; Leemans, C.R.; Brakenhoff, R.H. The unveiled reality of human papillomavirus as risk factor for oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer 2021, 149, 420–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Deneuve, S.; Guerlain, J.; Dupret-Bories, A.; Majoufre, C.; Philouze, P.; Ceruse, P.; Perreard, M.; Sigaud, N.; Barry, B.; Ransy, P.; et al. Oral tongue squamous cell carcinomas in young patients according to their smoking status: A GETTEC study. Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol. 2022, 279, 415–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Warnakulasuriya, S.; Johnson, N.W.; Van Der Waal, I. Nomenclature and classification of potentially malignant disorders of the oral mucosa. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 2007, 36, 575–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Amagasa, T.; Yamashiro, M.; Uzawa, N. Oral premalignant lesions: From a clinical perspective. Int. J. Clin. Oncol. 2011, 16, 5–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Montero, P.H.; Patel, S.G. Cancer of the oral cavity. Surg. Oncol. Clin. N. Am. 2015, 24, 491–508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Hansen, L.S.; Olson, J.A.; Silverman, S. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia: A long-term study of thirty patients. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. 1985, 60, 285–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. González-Moles, M.; Ramos-García, P.; Warnakulasuriya, S. An appraisal of highest quality studies reporting malignant transformation of oral lichen planus based on a systematic review. Oral Dis. 2021, 27, 1908–1918. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Qin, X.; Ning, Y.; Zhou, L.; Zhu, Y. Oral Submucous Fibrosis: Etiological Mechanism, Malignant Transformation, Therapeutic Approaches and Targets. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 4992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Wang, A.T.; Smogorzewska, A. SnapShot: Fanconi Anemia and Associated Proteins. Cell 2015, 160, 354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Velleuer, E.; Dietrich, R. Fanconi anemia: Young patients at high risk for squamous cell carcinoma. Mol. Cell. Pediatr. 2014, 1, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Bongiorno, M.; Rivard, S.; Hammer, D.; Kentosh, J. Malignant transformation of oral leukoplakia in a patient with dyskeratosis congenita. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol. 2017, 124, e239–e242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Handley, T.P.B.; Ogden, G.R. Dyskeratosis congenita: Oral hyperkeratosis in association with lichenoid reaction. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 2006, 35, 508–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Gingerich, M.A.; Smith, J.D.; Michmerhuizen, N.L.; Ludwig, M.; Devenport, S.; Matovina, C.; Brenner, C.; Chinn, S. Comprehensive review of genetic factors contributing to head and neck squamous cell carcinoma development in low-risk, nontraditional patients. Head Neck 2018, 40, 943–954. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Radoï, L.; Paget-Bailly, S.; Guida, F.; Cyr, D.; Menvielle, G.; Schmaus, A.; Carton, M.; Cénée, S.; Sanchez, M.; Guizard, A.V.; et al. Family history of cancer, personal history of med-ical conditions and risk of oral cavity cancer in France: The ICARE study. BMC Cancer 2013, 13, 560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Leoncini, E.; Ricciardi, W.; Cadoni, G.; Arzani, D.; Petrelli, L.; Paludetti, G.; Brennan, P.; Luce, D.; Stucker, I.; Matsuo, K.; et al. Adult height and head and neck cancer: A pooled analysis within the INHANCE Consortium. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2014, 29, 35–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Toporcov, T.N.; Znaor, A.; Zhang, Z.-F.; Yu, G.-P.; Winn, D.M.; Wei, Q.; Vilensky, M.; Vaughan, T.; Thomson, P.; Talamini, R.; et al. Risk factors for head and neck cancer in young adults: A pooled analysis in the INHANCE consortium. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2015, 44, 169–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Teerlink, C.C.; Albright, F.S.; Lins, L.; Cannon-Albright, L.A. A comprehensive survey of cancer risks in extended families. Genet. Med. Off. J. Am. Coll. Med. Genet. 2012, 14, 107–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Clifford, G.M.; Polesel, J.; Rickenbach, M.; Dal Maso, L.; Keiser, O.; Kofler, A.; Rapiti, E.; Levi, F.; Jundt, G.; Fisch, T.; et al. Cancer risk in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study: Associations with immunodeficiency, smoking, and highly active antiretroviral therapy. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2005, 97, 425–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Demopoulos, B.P.; Vamvakas, E.; Ehrlich, J.E.; Demopoulos, R. Non-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-defining malignan-cies in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 2003, 127, 589–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Öhman, J.; Rexius, H.; Mjörnstedt, L.; Gonzalez, H.; Holmberg, E.; Dellgren, G.; Hasséus, B. Oral and lip cancer in solid organ transplant patients--a cohort study from a Swedish Transplant Centre. Oral Oncol. 2015, 51, 146–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Atsuta, Y.; Suzuki, R.; Yamashita, T.; Fukuda, T.; Miyamura, K.; Taniguchi, S.; Iida, H.; Uchida, T.; Ikegame, K.; Takahashi, S.; et al. Continuing increased risk of oral/esophageal cancer after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in adults in association with chronic graft-versus-host disease. Ann. Oncol. 2014, 25, 435–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Warnakulasuriya, S.; Kujan, O.; Aguirre-Urizar, J.M.; Bagan, J.V.; González-Moles, M.; Kerr, A.R.; Lodi, G.; Mello, F.W.; Monteiro, L.; Ogden, G.R.; et al. Oral potentially malignant disorders: A consensus report from an international seminar on nomenclature and classification, convened by the WHO Collaborating Centre for Oral Cancer. Oral Dis. 2021, 27, 1862–1880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Baker, K.S.; Leisenring, W.M.; Goodman, P.J.; Ermoian, R.P.; Flowers, M.E.; Schoch, G.; Storb, R.; Sandmaier, B.M.; Deeg, H.J. Total body irradiation dose and risk of subsequent neoplasms following allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Blood 2019, 133, 2790–2799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Franceschi, S.; Talamini, R.; Barra, S.; Barón, A.; Negri, E.; Bidoli, E.; Serraino, D.; La Vecchia, C. Smoking and drinking in relation to cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus in northern Italy. Cancer Res. 1990, 50, 6502–6507. [Google Scholar]
  39. Richiardi, L.; Corbin, M.; Marron, M.; Ahrens, W.; Pohlabeln, H.; Lagiou, P.; Minaki, P.; Agudo, A.; Castellsague, X.; Slamova, A.; et al. Occupation and risk of upper aerodigestive tract cancer: The ARCAGE study. Int. J. Cancer 2012, 130, 2397–2406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. IARC Monographs. List of Classifications by Cancer Sites with Sufficient or Limited Evidence in Humans. Available online: https://monographs.iarc.who.int/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Classifications_by_cancer_site.pdf (accessed on 30 November 2022).
  41. Boffetta, P.; Hecht, S.; Gray, N.; Gupta, P.; Straif, K. Smokeless tobacco and cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2008, 9, 667–675. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–132–IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans. Available online: https://monographs.iarc.who.int/agents-classified-by-the-iarc/ (accessed on 2 December 2022).
  43. Secretan, B.; Straif, K.; Baan, R.; Grosse, Y.; El Ghissassi, F.; Bouvard, V.; Benbrahim-Tallaa, L.; Guha, N.; Freeman, C.; Galichet, L.; et al. A review of human carcinogens--Part E: Tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal smoke, and salted fish. Lancet Oncol. 2009, 10, 1033–1034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Gandini, S.; Botteri, E.; Iodice, S.; Boniol, M.; Lowenfels, A.B.; Maisonneuve, P.; Boyle, P. Tobacco smoking and cancer: A metaanalysis. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 122, 155–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinog. Risks Hum. 2004, 83, 1–1438. [Google Scholar]
  46. Cao, B.; Hill, C.; Bonaldi, C.; León, M.; Menvielle, G.; Arwidson, P.; Bray, F.; Soerjomataram, I. Cancers attributable to tobacco smoking in France in 2015. Eur. J. Public Health 2018, 28, 707–712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Lee, Y.-C.A.; Boffetta, P.; Sturgis, E.M.; Wei, Q.; Zhang, Z.-F.; Muscat, J.; Lazarus, P.; Matos, E.; Hayes, R.B.; Winn, D.M.; et al. Involuntary Smoking and Head and Neck Cancer Risk: Pooled Analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2008, 17, 1974–1981. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Gholap, D.; Dikshit, R.; Chaturvedi, P.; Chaturvedi, A.K.; Manjrekar, A.; Mhatre, S. Exclusive use of different types of tobacco products, exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke and risk of subtypes of head and neck cancer among Indian males. Int. J. Cancer 2023, 152, 374–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Gupta, A.K.; Kanaan, M.; Siddiqi, K.; Sinha, D.N.; Mehrotra, R. Oral Cancer Risk Assessment for Different Types of Smokeless Tobacco Products Sold Worldwide: A Review of Reviews and Meta-analyses. Cancer Prev. Res. 2022, 15, 733–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Beynon, R.A.; Lang, S.; Schimansky, S.; Penfold, C.M.; Waylen, A.; Thomas, S.J.; Pawlita, M.; WaTerboer, T.W.; Martin, R.M.; May, M.; et al. Tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking at diagnosis of head and neck cancer and all-cause mortality: Results from head and neck 5000, a prospective observational cohort of people with head and neck cancer. Int. J. Cancer 2018, 143, 1114–1127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Guo, Y.; Logan, H.L.; Marks, J.G.; Shenkman, E.A. The relationships among individual and regional smoking, socioeconomic status, and oral and pharyngeal cancer survival: A mediation analysis. Cancer Med. 2015, 4, 1612–1619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Giraldi, L.; Leoncini, E.; Pastorino, R.; Wünsch-Filho, V.; de Carvalho, M.; Lopez, R.; Cadoni, G.; Arzani, D.; Petrelli, L.; Matsuo, K.; et al. Alcohol and cigarette consumption predict mortality in patients with head and neck cancer: A pooled analysis within the International Head and Neck Cancer Epi-demiology (INHANCE) Consortium. Ann. Oncol. 2017, 28, 2843–2851. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Krutz, M.; Acharya, P.; Chissoe, G.; Raj, V.; Driskill, L.; Krempl, G.; Zhao, D.; Mhawej, R.; Queimado, L. Tobacco cessation after head and neck cancer diagnosis is an independent predictor of treatment response and long-term survival. Oral Oncol. 2022, 134, 106072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Lee, J.J.W.; Kunaratnam, V.; Kim, C.J.H.; Pienkowski, M.; Hueniken, K.; Sahovaler, A.; Lam, A.C.L.; Davies, J.C.; Brown, C.M.; De Almeida, J.R.; et al. Cigarette smoking cessation, duration of smoking abstinence, and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma prognosis. Cancer 2023, 129, 867–877. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Paget-Bailly, S.; Cyr, D.; Luce, D. Occupational exposures to asbestos, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and solvents, and cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx: A quantitative literature review. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2012, 85, 341–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Freedman, N.D.; Schatzkin, A.; Leitzmann, M.F.; Hollenbeck, A.R.; Abnet, C.C. Alcohol and head and neck cancer risk in a pro-spective study. Br. J. Cancer 2007, 96, 1469–1474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Bagnardi, V.; Rota, M.; Botteri, E.; Tramacere, I.; Islami, F.; Fedirko, V.; Scotti, L.; Jenab, M.; Turati, F.; Pasquali, E.; et al. Alcohol consumption and site-specific cancer risk: A comprehensive dose–response meta-analysis. Br. J. Cancer 2015, 112, 580–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Denissoff, A.; Huusko, T.; Ventelä, S.; Niemelä, S.; Routila, J. Exposure to alcohol and overall survival in head and neck cancer: A regional cohort study. Head Neck 2022, 44, 2109–2117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Zanoni, D.K.; Montero, P.H.; Migliacci, J.C.; Shah, J.P.; Wong, R.J.; Ganly, I.; Patel, S.G. Survival outcomes after treatment of cancer of the oral cavity (1985–2015). Oral Oncol. 2019, 90, 115–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Friedman, G.D.; Tekawa, I.; Klatsky, A.L.; Sidney, S.; Armstrong, M.A. Alcohol drinking and cigarette smoking: An exploration of the association in middle-aged men and women. Drug Alcohol. Depend. 1991, 27, 283–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Sztulman, H. Personnalités limites addictives. Pensee Plur. 2010, 23, 37–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Aubin, H.J.; Tilikete, S.; Roullet-Volmi, M.C.; Barrucand, D. Interrelations entre les dépendances alcoolique et tabagique. Alcoologie 1995, 17, 281–286. [Google Scholar]
  63. Mello, F.W.; Melo, G.; Pasetto, J.J.; Silva, C.A.B.; Warnakulasuriya, S.; Rivero, E.R.C. The synergistic effect of tobacco and alcohol consumption on oral squamous cell carcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Oral Investig. 2019, 23, 2849–2859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Blot, W.J.; McLaughlin, J.K.; Winn, D.M.; Austin, D.F.; Greenberg, R.S.; Preston-Martin, S.; Bernstein, L.; Schoenberg, J.B.; Stemhagen, A.; Fraumeni, J.F. Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer. Cancer Res. 1988, 48, 3282–3287. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  65. Homann, N.; Tillonen, J.; Meurman, J.; Rintamäki, H.; Lindqvist, C.; Rautio, M.; Jousimies-Somer, H.; Salaspuro, M. Increased salivary acetaldehyde levels in heavy drinkers and smokers: A microbiological approach to oral cavity cancer. Carcinogenesis 2000, 21, 663–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Howie, N.M.; Trigkas, T.K.; Cruchley, A.T.; Wertz, P.W.; Squier, C.; Williams, D.M. Short-term exposure to alcohol increases the permeability of human oral mucosa. Oral Dis. 2001, 7, 349–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Du, X.; Squier, C.A.; Kremer, M.J.; Wertz, P.W. Penetration of N-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) across oral mucosa in the presence of ethanol and nicotine. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 2000, 29, 80–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Baochang, H.; Liu, F.; Chen, Q.; Chen, L.; Lin, J.; Chen, F.; Wang, J.; Qiu, Y.; Shi, B.; Pan, L.; et al. Propensity score analysis exploring the impact of smoking and drinking on the prognosis of patients with oral cancer. Head Neck 2020, 42, 1837–1847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Nokovitch, L.; Kim, Y.; Zrounba, P.; Roux, P.-E.; Poupart, M.; Giagnorio, R.; Triviaux, D.; Maquet, C.; Thollin, J.; Arantes, N.; et al. Addictions, Social Deprivation and Cessation Failure in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Survivors. Cancers 2023, 15, 1231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Nelson, B.S.; Heischober, B. Betel Nut: A Common Drug Used by Naturalized Citizens from India, Far East Asia, and the South Pacific Islands. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1999, 34, 238–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Znaor, A.; Brennan, P.; Gajalakshmi, V.; Mathew, A.; Shanta, V.; Varghese, C.; Boffetta, P. Independent and combined effects of to-bacco smoking, chewing and alcohol drinking on the risk of oral, pharyngeal and esophageal cancers in Indian men. Int. J. Cancer 2003, 105, 681–686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Thomas, S.J.; Bain, C.J.; Battistutta, D.; Ness, A.; Paissat, D.; Maclennan, R. Betel quid not containing tobacco and oral cancer: A report on a case–control study in Papua New Guinea and a meta-analysis of current evidence. Int. J. Cancer 2007, 120, 1318–1323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Human papillomaviruses. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinog. Risks Hum. 1995, 64, 1–378. [Google Scholar]
  74. Marur, S.; D’Souza, G.; Westra, W.H.; Forastiere, A.A. HPV-associated head and neck cancer: A virus-related cancer epidemic. Lancet Oncol. 2010, 11, 781–789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. SEER Incidence Database—SEER Data & Software. Available online: https://seer.cancer.gov/data/index.html (accessed on 30 November 2022).
  76. IARC; WHO. Pathology and Genetics of Head and Neck Tumours; IARC: Lyon, France, 2005; 440p. [Google Scholar]
  77. Chien, C.-Y.; Su, C.-Y.; Fang, F.-M.; Huang, H.-Y.; Chuang, H.-C.; Chen, C.-M. Lower prevalence but favorable survival for human papillomavirus-related squamous cell carcinoma of tonsil in Taiwan. Oral Oncol. 2008, 44, 174–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Ang, K.K.; Harris, J.; Wheeler, R.; Weber, R.; Rosenthal, D.I.; Nguyen-Tân, P.F.; Westra, W.; Chung, C.; Jordan, R.; Lu, C.; et al. Human papillomavirus and survival of pa-tients with oropharyngeal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010, 363, 24–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Albers, A.E.; Qian, X.; Kaufmann, A.M.; Coordes, A. Meta analysis: HPV and p16 pattern determines survival in patients with HNSCC and identifies potential new biologic subtype. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Hashibe, M.; Straif, K.; Tashkin, D.P.; Morgenstern, H.; Greenland, S.; Zhang, Z.-F. Epidemiologic review of marijuana use and cancer risk. Alcohol 2005, 35, 265–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  81. Marks, M.A.; Chaturvedi, A.K.; Kelsey, K.; Straif, K.; Berthiller, J.; Schwartz, S.M.; Smith, E.; Wyss, A.; Brennan, P.; Olshan, A.F.; et al. Association of marijuana smoking with oropharyngeal and oral tongue cancers: Pooled analysis from the INHANCE consortium. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2014, 23, 160–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Zhang, Z.F.; Morgenstern, H.; Spitz, M.R.; Tashkin, D.P.; Yu, G.P.; Marshall, J.R.; Hsu, T.C.; Schantz, S.P. Marijuana use and increased risk of squa-mous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 1999, 8, 1071–1078. [Google Scholar]
  83. Razmpa, E.; Saedi, B.; Motiee-Langroudi, M.; Garajei, A.; Hoseinpor, S.; Motamedi, M.H.K. Opium Usage as an Etiologic Factor of Oral Cavity Cancer. J. Craniofacial Surg. 2014, 25, e505–e507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Singh, G.; Jaiswal, A.; Goel, A.D.; Raghav, P. Opium Usage and Risk of Head and Neck Cancer: A Systematic Review and Me-ta-Analysis. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2021, 22, 661–670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Lachenmeier, D.W.; Gumbel-Mako, S.; Sohnius, E.-M.; Keck-Wilhelm, A.; Kratz, E.; Mildau, G. Salivary acetaldehyde increase due to alcohol-containing mouthwash use: A risk factor for oral cancer. Int. J. Cancer 2009, 125, 730–735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Ahrens, W.; Pohlabeln, H.; Foraita, R.; Nelis, M.; Lagiou, P.; Lagiou, A.; Bouchardy, C.; Slamova, A.; Schejbalova, M.; Merletti, F.; et al. Oral health, dental care and mouthwash associated with upper aerodigestive tract cancer risk in Europe: The ARCAGE study. Oral Oncol. 2014, 50, 616–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Hostiuc, S.; Ionescu, I.V.; Drima, E. Mouthwash Use and the Risk of Oral, Pharyngeal, and Laryngeal Cancer. A Me-ta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 8215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. La Vecchia, C. Mouthwash and oral cancer risk: An update. Oral Oncol. 2009, 45, 198–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  89. Sapkota, A.; Zaridze, D.; Szeszenia-Dabrowska, N.; Mates, D.; Fabiánová, E.; Rudnai, P.; Janout, V.; Holcatova, I.; Brennan, P.; Boffetta, P.; et al. Indoor air pollution from solid fuels and risk of upper aerodigestive tract cancers in Central and Eastern Europe. Environ. Res. 2013, 120, 90–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Personal Habits and Indoor Combustions. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinog. Risks Hum. 2012, 100, 1–538. [Google Scholar]
  91. Yuk, J.-S.; Kim, B.Y. Relationship between Menopausal Hormone Therapy and Oral Cancer: A Cohort Study Based on the Health Insurance Database in South Korea. J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11, 5848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Emfietzoglou, R.; Spyrou, N.; Mantzoros, C.S.; Dalamaga, M. Could the endocrine disruptor bisphenol-A be implicated in the pathogenesis of oral and oropharyngeal cancer? Metabolic considerations and future directions. Metabolism 2019, 91, 61–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Shield, K.D.; Marant Micallef, C.; Hill, C.; Touvier, M.; Arwidson, P.; Bonaldi, C.; Ferrari, P.; Bray, F.; Soerjomataram, I. New cancer cases in France in 2015 at-tributable to different levels of alcohol consumption. Addict. Abingdon Engl. 2018, 113, 247–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Langevin, S.; O’sullivan, M.H.; Valerio, J.L.; Pawlita, M.; Applebaum, K.M.; Eliot, M.; McClean, M.D.; Kelsey, K.T. Occupational asbestos exposure is associated with pharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma in men from the greater Boston area. Occup. Environ. Med. 2013, 70, 858–863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  95. Marchand, J.L.; Luce, D.; Leclerc, A.; Goldberg, P.; Orlowski, E.; Bugel, I.; Brugère, J. Laryngeal and hypopharyngeal cancer and occu-pational exposure to asbestos and man-made vitreous fibers: Results of a case-control study. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2000, 37, 581–589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Goodman, M.; Morgan, R.W.; Ray, R.; Malloy, C.D.; Zhao, K. Cancer in asbestos-exposed occupational cohorts: A meta-analysis. Cancer Causes Control 1999, 10, 453–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Hall, A.; Kromhout, H.; Schüz, J.; Peters, S.; Portengen, L.; Vermeulen, R.; Agudo, A.; Ahrens, W.; Boffetta, P.; Brennan, P.; et al. Laryngeal Cancer Risks in Workers Exposed to Lung Carcinogens: Exposure–Effect Analyses Using a Quantitative Job Exposure Matrix. Epidemiology 2020, 31, 145–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Paget-Bailly, S.; Cyr, D.; Luce, D. Occupational Exposures and Cancer of the Larynx—Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2012, 54, 71–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Smailyte, G. Cancer incidence among workers exposed to softwood dust in Lithuania: Table 1. Occup. Environ. Med. 2012, 69, 449–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Chen, M.; Tse, L.A. Laryngeal cancer and silica dust exposure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2012, 55, 669–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Dupree, E.; Cragle, D.L.; McLain, R.W.; Crawford-Brown, D.J.; Teta, M.J. Mortality among workers at a uranium processing facility, the Linde Air Products Company Ceramics Plant, 1943–1949. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 1987, 13, 100–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Easton, D.F.; Peto, J.; Doll, R. Cancers of the respiratory tract in mustard gas workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 1988, 45, 652–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Carton, M.; Barul, C.; Menvielle, G.; Cyr, D.; Sanchez, M.; Pilorget, C.; Trétarre, B.; Stücker, I.; Luce, D. Occupational exposure to solvents and risk of head and neck cancer in women: A population-based case–control study in France. BMJ Open 2017, 7, e012833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Barul, C.; ICARE study group; Fayossé, A.; Carton, M.; Pilorget, C.; Woronoff, A.-S.; Stücker, I.; Luce, D. Occupational exposure to chlorinated solvents and risk of head and neck cancer in men: A population-based case-control study in France. Environ. Health 2017, 16, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Gustavsson, P.; Jakobsson, R.; Johansson, H.; Lewin, F.; Norell, S.; Rutkvist, L.E. Occupational exposures and squamous cell car-cinoma of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and oesophagus: A case-control study in Sweden. Occup. Environ. Med. 1998, 55, 393–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Barul, C.; Matrat, M.; Auguste, A.; Dugas, J.; Radoi, L.; Menvielle, G.; Févotte, J.; Guizard, A.-V.; Stücker, I.; Luce, D. Welding and the risk of head and neck cancer: The ICARE study. Occup. Environ. Med. 2020, 77, 293–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Shangina, O.; Brennan, P.; Szeszenia-Dabrowska, N.; Mates, D.; Fabiánová, E.; Fletcher, T.; T’Mannetje, A.; Boffetta, P.; Zaridze, D. Occupational Exposure and Laryngeal and Hypopharyngeal Cancer Risk in Central and Eastern Europe. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2006, 164, 367–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Sapkota, A.; Gajalakshmi, V.; Jetly, D.H.; Roychowdhury, S.; Dikshit, R.P.; Brennan, P.; Hashibe, M.; Boffetta, P. Indoor air pollution from solid fuels and risk of hypopharyngeal/laryngeal and lung cancers: A multicentric case-control study from India. Leuk. Res. 2008, 37, 321–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Laakkonen, A.; Kyyronen, P.; Kauppinen, T.; Pukkala, E. Occupational exposure to eight organic dusts and respiratory cancer among Finns. Occup. Environ. Med. 2006, 63, 726–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Carton, M.; Menvielle, G.; Cyr, D.; Sanchez, M.; Pilorget, C.; Guizard, A.-V.; Stücker, I.; Luce, D.; for the Icare Study Group. Occupational exposure to flour dust and the risk of head and neck cancer. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2018, 61, 869–873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Radoï, L.; ICARE study group; Sylla, F.; Matrat, M.; Barul, C.; Menvielle, G.; Delafosse, P.; Stücker, I.; Luce, D. Head and neck cancer and occupational exposure to leather dust: Results from the ICARE study, a French case-control study. Environ. Health 2019, 18, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Hansen, E.S. Cancer incidence in an occupational cohort exposed to bitumen fumes. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 1989, 15, 101–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Mundt, K.A.; Dell, L.D.; Crawford, L.; Sax, S.N.; Boffetta, P. Cancer Risk Associated With Exposure to Bitumen and Bitumen Fumes: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2018, 60, e6–e54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Lloyd, J.W.; Decoufle, P.; Salvin, L.G. Unusual mortality experience of printing pressmen. J. Occup. Med. Off. Publ. Ind. Med. Assoc. 1977, 19, 543–550. [Google Scholar]
  115. Leon, D.A. Mortality in the British printing industry: A historical cohort study of trade union members in Manchester. Occup. Environ. Med. 1994, 51, 79–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Deneuve, S.; Charbotel, B.; Massardier-Pilonchéry, A.; Fort, E.; Milliet-Baude, C.; Pérol, O.; Fayette, J.; Zrounba, P.; Fervers, B. Systematic screening for occupa-tions and occupational exposures in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients. Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol. 2019, 276, 857–864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Menvielle, G.; Fayossé, A.; Radoï, L.; Guida, F.; Sanchez, M.; Carton, M.; Cyr, D.; Schmaus, A.; Cénée, S.; Fevotte, J.; et al. The joint effect of asbestos exposure, tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking on laryngeal cancer risk: Evidence from the French population-based case-control study, ICARE. Occup Environ. Med. 2016, 73, 28–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Lo, K.B.; Albano, J.; Sandhu, N.; Candelario, N. Plummer-Vinson syndrome: Improving outcomes with a multidisciplinary ap-proach. J. Multidiscip. Healthc. 2019, 12, 471–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Tsao, S.W.; Yip, Y.L.; Tsang, C.M.; Pang, P.S.; Lau, V.M.Y.; Zhang, G.; Lo, K.W. Etiological factors of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Oral Oncol. 2014, 50, 330–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  120. Jalouli, J.; Jalouli, M.M.; Sapkota, D.; Ibrahim, S.O.; Larsson, P.A.; Sand, L. Human papilloma virus, herpes simplex virus and ep-stein barr virus in oral squamous cell carcinoma from eight different countries. Anticancer Res. 2012, 32, 571–580. [Google Scholar]
  121. World Cancer Research Fund; American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective; American Institute for Cancer Research: Washington, DC, USA, 2007; Volume 1. [Google Scholar]
  122. Chuang, S.-C.; Jenab, M.; Heck, J.; Bosetti, C.; Talamini, R.; Matsuo, K.; Castellsagué, X.; Franceschi, S.; Herrero, R.; Winn, D.M.; et al. Diet and the risk of head and neck cancer: A pooled analysis in the INHANCE consortium. Cancer Causes Control 2012, 23, 69–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Edefonti, V.; Hashibe, M.; Parpinel, M.; Ferraroni, M.; Turati, F.; Serraino, D.; Matsuo, K.; Olshan, A.F.; Zevallos, J.P.; Winn, D.M.; et al. Vitamin E intake from natural sources and head and neck cancer risk: A pooled analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology consortium. Br. J. Cancer 2015, 113, 182–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Edefonti, V.; Hashibe, M.; Parpinel, M.; Turati, F.; Serraino, D.; Matsuo, K.; Olshan, A.F.; Zevallos, J.P.; Winn, D.M.; Moysich, K.; et al. Natural vitamin C intake and the risk of head and neck cancer: A pooled analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. Int. J. Cancer 2015, 137, 448–462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. Leoncini, E.; Nedovic, D.; Panic, N.; Pastorino, R.; Edefonti, V.; Boccia, S. Carotenoid Intake from Natural Sources and Head and Neck Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Epidemiological Studies. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2015, 24, 1003–1011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Galeone, C.; Edefonti, V.C.; Parpinel, M.; Leoncini, E.; Matsuo, K.; Talamini, R.; Olshan, A.F.; Zevallos, J.P.; Winn, D.M.; Jayaprakash, V.; et al. Folate intake and the risk of oral cavity and pharyngeal cancer: A pooled analysis within the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. Int. J. Cancer 2015, 136, 904–914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  127. Kawakita, D.; Sato, F.; Hosono, S.; Ito, H.; Oze, I.; Watanabe, M.; Hanai, N.; Hatooka, S.; Hasegawa, Y.; Shinoda, M.; et al. Inverse association between yoghurt intake and upper aerodigestive tract cancer risk in a Japanese population. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 2012, 21, 453–459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  128. Mello, F.W.; Scotti, F.M.; Melo, G.; Warnakulasuriya, S.; Guerra, E.N.S.; Rivero, E.R.C. Maté consumption association with upper aerodigestive tract cancers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Oral Oncol. 2018, 82, 37–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Turati, F.; Galeone, C.; La Vecchia, C.; Garavello, W.; Tavani, A. Coffee and cancers of the upper digestive and respiratory tracts: Meta-analyses of observational studies. Ann. Oncol. 2011, 22, 536–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  130. Lubin, J.H.; Gaudet, M.M.; Olshan, A.F.; Kelsey, K.; Boffetta, P.; Brennan, P.; Castellsague, X.; Chen, C.; Curado, M.P.; Maso, L.D.; et al. Body Mass Index, Cigarette Smoking, and Alcohol Consumption and Cancers of the Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Larynx: Modeling Odds Ratios in Pooled Case-Control Data. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2010, 171, 1250–1261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Gaudet, M.M.; Kitahara, C.M.; Newton, C.C.; Bernstein, L.; Reynolds, P.; Weiderpass, E.; Kreimer, A.R.; Yang, G.; Adami, H.-O.; Alavanja, M.C.; et al. Anthropometry and head and neck cancer:a pooled analysis of cohort data. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2015, 44, 673–681. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Nicolotti, N.; Chuang, S.C.; Cadoni, G.; Arzani, D.; Petrelli, L.; Bosetti, C.; Brenner, H.; Hosono, S.; La Vecchia, C.; Matsuo, K.; et al. Recreational physical activity and risk of head and neck cancer: A pooled analysis within the international head and neck cancer epidemiology (INHANCE) Consortium. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2011, 26, 619–628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. Müller-Richter, U.; Betz, C.; Hartmann, S.; Brands, R. Nutrition management for head and neck cancer patients improves clinical outcome and survival. Nutr. Res. 2017, 48, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  134. Baochang, H.; Liu, F.; Lin, J.; Chen, Q.; Chen, L.; Chen, F.; Wang, J.; Qiu, Y.; Shi, B.; Pan, L.; et al. Nutritional assessment and prognosis of oral cancer patients: A large-scale prospective study. BMC Cancer 2020, 20, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Hashim, D.; Sartori, S.; Brennan, P.; Curado, M.; Wünsch-Filho, V.; Divaris, K.; Olshan, A.; Zevallos, J.; Winn, D.; Franceschi, S.; et al. The role of oral hygiene in head and neck cancer: Results from International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE) consortium. Ann. Oncol. 2016, 27, 1619–1625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  136. Deng, Q.; Yan, L.; Lin, J.; Zhuang, Z.; Hong, Y.; Hu, C.; Lin, L.; Pan, L.; Shi, B.; Wang, J.; et al. A composite oral hygiene score and the risk of oral cancer and its subtypes: A large-scale propensity score-based study. Clin. Oral Investig. 2022, 26, 2429–2437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Manoharan, S.; Nagaraja, V.; Eslick, G.D. Ill-fitting dentures and oral cancer: A meta-analysis. Oral Oncol. 2014, 50, 1058–1061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  138. Perry, B.J.; Zammit, A.P.; Lewandowski, A.W.; Bashford, J.J.; Dragovic, A.S.; Perry, E.J.; Hayatbakhsh, R.; Perry, F.L. Sites of origin of oral cavity cancer in nonsmokers vs smokers: Possible evidence of dental trauma carcinogenesis and its importance compared with human papillo-mavirus. JAMA Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2015, 141, 5–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  139. Hoare, A.; Soto, C.; Rojas-Celis, V.; Bravo, D. Chronic Inflammation as a Link between Periodontitis and Carcinogenesis. Mediat. Inflamm. 2019, 2019, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  140. Adrien, J.; Bertolus, C.; Gambotti, L.; Mallet, A.; Baujat, B. Why are head and neck squamous cell carcinoma diagnosed so late? Influence of health care disparities and socio-economic factors. Oral Oncol. 2014, 50, 90–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  141. Johnson, S.; McDonald, J.T.; Corsten, M.J. Socioeconomic factors in head and neck cancer. J. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2008, 37, 597–601. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  142. Johnson, S.; McDonald, J.T.; Corsten, M.; Rourke, R. Socio-economic status and head and neck cancer incidence in Canada: A case-control study. Oral Oncol. 2010, 46, 200–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  143. Bryere, J.; Dejardin, O.; Launay, L.; Colonna, M.; Grosclaude, P.; Launoy, G. Environnement socioéconomique et incidence des cancers en France. Bull. Epidémiol. Hebd. 2017, 4, 68–77. [Google Scholar]
  144. Conway, D.I.; Hovanec, J.; Ahrens, W.; Ross, A.; Holcatova, I.; Lagiou, P.; Serraino, D.; Canova, C.; Richiardi, L.; Healy, C.; et al. Occupational socioeconomic risk associations for head and neck cancer in Europe and South America: Individual participant data analysis of pooled case–control studies within the INHANCE Consortium. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2021, 75, 779–787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table
Table 1. Search strategy for exploring oral cancer and HNSCC risk factors or occupational exposures.
Table 1. Search strategy for exploring oral cancer and HNSCC risk factors or occupational exposures.
Localization/TopicSearch StrategyNumber of References Identified
Cancer of the oral cavity #1(oral [Tiab] OR mouth [Tiab] OR gingiva [Tiab] OR gingival [Tiab] OR tongue [Tiab] OR palate [Tiab] OR palatal [Tiab] OR buccal [Tiab]) AND (cancer * [Tiab] OR carcinoma * [Tiab] OR malignan * [Tiab] OR tumor * [Tiab] OR tumor * [Tiab] OR neoplasm * [Tiab])136,837
Etiology #2(risk * [Title/Abstract] OR risk factor * [Title/Abstract] OR exposure * [Title/Abstract] OR exposed [Title/Abstract]) 3,888,254
Combination#1 AND #231,350
Table
Table 2. Carcinogenic agents for HNSCC recognized by the IARC with sufficient evidence in humans [40].
Table 2. Carcinogenic agents for HNSCC recognized by the IARC with sufficient evidence in humans [40].
Carcinogenic Agents with
Sufficient Evidence in Humans		Carcinogenic Agents with
Limited Evidence
Oral cavityAlcoholic beverages
Betel with tobacco
Betel without tobacco
HPV 16
Smoking
Passive smoking		HPV 18
Bitumen, occupational exposure to oxidized and hard bitumen and their emissions during roofing and mastic asphalt work
OropharynxHPV 16
PharynxAlcoholic beverages
Betel with tobacco
HPV 16
Smoking		Asbestosis
Opium
Printing processes
Passive smoking
LarynxAcid smokes
Strong inorganics
Alcoholic beverages
Asbestosis
Opium
Smoking		HPV 16
Rubber production
Mustard gas
Passive smoking
Table
Table 3. Classification of HPV types according to their level of carcinogenicity established by the IARC [40].
Table 3. Classification of HPV types according to their level of carcinogenicity established by the IARC [40].
Agent is Carcinogenic to Humans, Group 1Probably Carcinogenic to Humans, Group 2APotentially Carcinogenic to Humans, Group 2B
Serotype HPV16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, and 596826, 30, 34, 53, 66, 69, 67, 68, 70, 73, 82, 85, and 97
Table
Table 4. Occupational and environmental risk factors, classification of human carcinogenicity according to the IARC, and level of accountability for the four main locations of HNSCC (OR = odds ratio; confidence interval 95% (CI) = []). We distinguished for each cancer site, occupational exposures classified by IARC with “sufficient evidence” (i.e., a causal relationship has been established between exposure to the agent and the given cancer type), “limited evidence” (i.e., a positive association for which a causal interpretation is considered credible, but chance, bias, or confounding could not be ruled out with reasonable confidence), and “inadequate evidence” (i.e., there are no data available in humans, or the available studies are of insufficient quality, consistency, or statistical precision.
Table 4. Occupational and environmental risk factors, classification of human carcinogenicity according to the IARC, and level of accountability for the four main locations of HNSCC (OR = odds ratio; confidence interval 95% (CI) = []). We distinguished for each cancer site, occupational exposures classified by IARC with “sufficient evidence” (i.e., a causal relationship has been established between exposure to the agent and the given cancer type), “limited evidence” (i.e., a positive association for which a causal interpretation is considered credible, but chance, bias, or confounding could not be ruled out with reasonable confidence), and “inadequate evidence” (i.e., there are no data available in humans, or the available studies are of insufficient quality, consistency, or statistical precision.
Cancer Site
Occupational ExposuresType of EvidenceOral CavityOropharynxHypopharynxLarynx
Asbestosis
IARC classification: Group 1		IARC classification by cancer site Inadequate evidenceLimited evidenceSufficient evidence
LiteratureLangevin et al., 2013 [94]: Case-control study OR = 1.41 [1.01 to 1.97].
Paget-Bailly et al., 2012 [55]: Meta-analysis
meta-RR = 1.25 [1.10–1.42] (oral cavity and pharynx altogether).
Marchand et al., 2000 [95]: Case-control study
OR = 1.80 [1.08–2.99] (hypopharynx).		Goodman et al., 1999 [96]: Meta-analysis
Meta-RR = 133 [114–155].
Hall et al., 2020 [97]: Case control-study with exposure measurement
Cumulative exposure >90th percentile
OR = 1.3 [1.0–1.6]
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
IARC classification: Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidence
Literature(Oral cavity and pharynx altogether)
Paget-Bailly et al., 2012 [55]: Meta-analysis
meta-RR = 1.14 [1.02–1.28]		Paget-Bailly et al., 2012 [98]: Meta-analysis
Meta-RR = 129 [1.10–1.52]
Wood dusts
IARC classification: Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidenceLimited evidence
LiteratureSmailyte et al., 2012 [99]:
Cohort study
SIR = 2.83 [1.29–5.37]		 Langevin et al., 2013 [94]:
Case control study
OR = 1.2 [1.0–1.3]
Metal Dust
IARC classification: Group 2B (industry)		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidenceLimited evidence
Literature Langevin et al., 2013 [94]
Case control study
OR = 1.2 [1.0–1.4]
Textile industry
IARC classification: Group 2B (industry)		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidence
Literature Paget-Bailly et al., 2012 [94]:
Meta-analysis
meta-RR = 1.41 [1.09–1.53] (textile dust) (Paget-Bailly et al., 2012 [55])
Industrial rubber manufacturing process
IARC classification:
Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidenceLimited evidence
Literature Paget-Bailly et al., 2012 [98]: Meta-analysis meta-RR= 1.39 [1.13–1.71]
Silica dust
IARC classification: Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidence
Literature Chen et al., 2012 [100]: Meta-analysis
OR = 1.39 [1.17–1.67].
Hall et al., 2020 [97]:
Case-control study with exposure measurement
OR = 1.4 [1.2–1.7]
Cumulative exposure 75th–90th percentile OR = 1.4 [1.1–1.8].
Diesel exhaust
IARC classification: Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidence
Literature Paget-Bailly et al., 2012 [98]:
Meta-analysis
meta-RR = 1.16 [1.10–1.33]
Uranium
IARC classification:
Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidence
Literature Dupree et al., 1987 [101]: Cohort study
SMR = 447 [144–1043]
Mustard gas
IARC classification: Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidenceLimited evidence
Literature Easton et al., 1988: Cohort study [102]
Standardized mortality ratio (SMR) = 549		Easton et al., 1988 [102]: Cohort study
SMR = 273
Occupational Exposure risk Factors Oral CavityOropharynxHypopharynxLarynx
Chlorinated solvents
IARC classification:
Group 1 Trichloroethylene (TCE)
Group 2A Perchloroethylene (PCE)		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidence
Literature Carton et al., 2017 [103]: Case-control study
PCE: OR = 2.97 [1.05–8.45]; trichloroethylene TCE: OR = 2.15 [1.21–3.81]
Barul et al., 2017 [104]:
Case-control study
PCE OR = 3.86 [1.30–11.48]
Welding fumes
IARC classification: Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidence
Literature Gustavsson et al., 1998 [105]:
Case-control study
RR = 2.3 [1.10–4.7] 		Gustavsson et al., 1998 [105]:
Case-control study
RR = 2.0 [1.0–3.7]
Barul et al., 2020 [106]: Case-control study OR = 1.31 [1.03–1.67]
Domestic emissions from domestic coal combustion
IARC classification: Group 1		IARC classification by cancer site No evidence
Literature Shangina et al., 2006 [107]: Case-control study
OR = 4.19 [1.18–14.89]
Sapkota et al., 2008 [108]:
Coal period of use > 50 years hypopharynx OR = 3.47 [0.95–12.69] and larynx OR = 3.65 [1.11–11.93].
Vegetable dusts
No IARC classification		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidence
Literature Laakkonen et al., 2006 [109]: Cohort study
SIR = 3.55 [1.3–7.72]
Occupational Exposure Risk Factors Oral CavityOropharynxHypopharynxLarynx
Flour dust
IARC classification:
Group 3		IARC classification by cancer site No evidence
Literature Carton et al., 2018 [110]: Case control study OR = 1.55 [1.11–2.17]
Leather dust
IARC classification:
Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteInadequate evidence
LiteratureRadoï et al., 2019 [111]: Case-control study OR = 2.26 [1.07–4.76]
Mustard gas
IARC classification:
Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteLimited evidenceNo evidenceLimited evidence
LiteratureEaston et al., 1988 [102]: Cohort study
SMR = 280		Easton et al., 1988 [102]: Cohort study
SMR = 549		Easton et al., 1988 [102]: Cohort study
SMR = 273
Bitumen
IARC classification:
  • Oxidized bitumen and its emissions during roofing
    ○
    Group 2B
  • Straight run bitumen and its emissions during road paving
    ○
    Group 2B
  • Hard bitumen and its emissions during mastic asphalt work
    ○
    Group 2B
IARC classification by cancer siteLimited evidence
LiteratureHansen, 1989 [112]
Cohort study
SMR= 1111 [135–4014]		Mundt et al., 2018 [113]
Meta-analysis
meta-RR = 1.31 [1.03–1.67]
Printing process
IARC classification:
Group 1		IARC classification by cancer siteLimited evidence
LiteratureLloyd et al., 1977 [114]:
Cohort study
RR =2.4 [1.2–4.6].
Leon et al., 1994 [115]: Cohort study
editors SMR = 1053
[128–3803]
office workers SMR = 638 [132–1864].
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Nokovitch, L.; Maquet, C.; Crampon, F.; Taihi, I.; Roussel, L.-M.; Obongo, R.; Virard, F.; Fervers, B.; Deneuve, S. Oral Cavity Squamous Cell Carcinoma Risk Factors: State of the Art. J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12, 3264. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12093264

AMA Style

Nokovitch L, Maquet C, Crampon F, Taihi I, Roussel L-M, Obongo R, Virard F, Fervers B, Deneuve S. Oral Cavity Squamous Cell Carcinoma Risk Factors: State of the Art. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2023; 12(9):3264. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12093264

Chicago/Turabian Style

Nokovitch, Lara, Charles Maquet, Frédéric Crampon, Ihsène Taihi, Lise-Marie Roussel, Rais Obongo, François Virard, Béatrice Fervers, and Sophie Deneuve. 2023. "Oral Cavity Squamous Cell Carcinoma Risk Factors: State of the Art" Journal of Clinical Medicine 12, no. 9: 3264. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12093264

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop