Materials and Applications for Low-Cost Ceramic Membranes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials
2.1. Natural Minerals
2.1.1. Kaolin
2.1.2. Other Clays
2.1.3. Zeolite Minerals
2.1.4. Apatite
2.1.5. Quartz Sand
2.1.6. Natural Pozzolan
2.1.7. Bauxite
2.2. Waste Materials (Ashes)
2.2.1. Fly Ash
2.2.2. Rice Husk Ash
2.2.3. Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
2.3. Cement
2.3.1. Portland Cement
2.3.2. Geopolymer Cement
3. Application Areas of Low-Cost Inorganic Membranes
4. Cost Evaluation
5. Summary and Outlook
- The development of novel combinations of low-cost precursor materials and pore formers through iterative experimentation;
- Continued development of freeze casting methods for the structuring of pores [194];
- Safety concerns should be considered, i.e., effluents of low-cost membranes should be tested to check the presence and dissolution of radioactive elements and heavy metals [195].
- Clays, in particular, are of keen interest in the design of low-cost ceramic membranes. Kaolin-based hollow fiber membranes, in particular, offer a valuable pathway towards effective oil-water separation;
- Silicate bearing ashes derived from coal combustion or rice husks can serve as the basis for mullite membranes in which the intergrowth of mullite needles is harnessed to impart highly functional pore structures in the obtained membranes;
- Current researches show that natural quartz sand, zeolite mineral, apatites are also promising. However, more research is needed to investigate the effect of fabrications conditions and mineralogical composition;
- A sintering-free approach using self-hardening materials, such as Portland cement and geopolymer, enables the reduction of costs and environmental impacts of high-temperature sintering processes;
- Cost-benefit analyses indicate that the application of low-cost materials in membrane processes on an industrial scale would be economically and environmentally advantageous.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AFt | Calcium sulfoaluminate hydrates |
C2S | Dicalcium silicate |
C3S | Tricalcium silicate |
CH | Calcium hydroxide |
C-S-H | Calcium silicate hydrate |
MF | Microfiltration |
PVA | Polyvinyl alcohol |
RH | Rice husk |
RHA | Rice husk ash |
SCBA | Sugarcane bagasse ash |
SEM | Scanning electron microscope |
SL | Support layer |
SSF | Slow sand filter |
UF | Ultrafiltration |
XRD | X-ray powder diffraction |
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Materials Mixed with Kaolin | Shaping Technique | Sintering Temperature, °C | Porosity, % | Pore Size, µm | Flexural Strength, MPa | Application |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Quartz, sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate, and boric acid | Paste casting | 850–1000 | 33–42 | 0.55–0.81 | 3–8 | MF [20] |
Quartz, calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, boric acid, and sodium metasilicate | Pressing | 900 | 35–39 | 0.72–1.69 | 7–11 | MF of mosambi juice [30] |
Quartz, calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, boric acid, and sodium metasilicate | Pressing | 900 | 30–37 | 2–3 | - | MF of oil-in-water emulsions [31] |
Quartz, ball clay, pyrophyllite, and feldspar | Extrusion | 950 | 53 | 0.31 | 12 | MF of oil in water emulsion [37] |
Quartz and calcium carbonate | Pressing | 900–1000 | 30 | 1.3 | 34 | MF of oil and bacteria [11] |
Limestone | Extrusion | 800–1100 | 48 | 7 | 30 | Support layer [38] |
Lime | Extrusion | 800–1100 | 47 | 8 | 30–53 | Support layer [28] |
Feldspar, sodium metasilicate nanohydrate, and boric acid | Pressing | 850 | 29 | 0.93 | 8.7 | MF [39] |
Dolomite | Pressing and Extrusion | 1000–1300 | 37–56 | 1.6–48 | 6–15 | Support layer [40] |
Extrusion | 1100–1300 | 44.6 | 4.7 | 47.6 | Support layer [17] | |
Calcium carbonate | Extrusion | 1250 | 52 | 4.0 | 23 | Support layer [41] |
Extrusion | 1150–1300 | 42–50 | 4–8 | 67–77 | Support layer [42] | |
Calcite | Extrusion | 1150 | 50 | 4 | 28 | Support layer [19] |
Pressing and extrusion | 1300 and 1100–1250 | 49 | 3 | 87 | Support layer [18] | |
Bentonite, talc, sodium borate, and carbon black | Pressing | 1000 | 34 | 0.65–1.25 | 58 | MF of oil-in-water emulsion [32] |
Bauxite | Pressing | 1300–1600 | 31 | 0.15–0.8 | 100 * | MF [26] |
Ball clay, quartz, alumina, and calcium carbonate | Paste casting | 1100–1400 | 35–46 | 0.1–1 | 20–60 | MF [29] |
Ball clay, feldspar, calcium carbonate, and pyrophyllite | Pressing | 800–1000 | 44 | 1.01 | 28 | Support layer [12] |
Alumina and aluminum hydroxide | Pressing | 1300–1550 | 46 | 1.3 | - | Support layer [27] |
Without reactive additives | Support: extrusion; MF layer: slip casting | Support: 1000–1250; MF layer: 1050 | 46–60 | 0.9–1.4 | 4–24 | MF [43] |
Extrusion | 1150 | 49 | 1.2 | 5.8 | Solid particle removal from water [36] | |
Extrusion | 1200–1500 | - | 0.32 | 221 | Arsenic removal and oil removal [35,44] | |
Extrusion | 1100–1250 | 27 | 0.76 | 28 | MF of cuttlefish effluent [34] | |
Extrusion | 1200–1500 | 32–57 | 0.53–4.25 | 15–35 | MF of oil-in-water emulsion [25] | |
Extrusion | 1200–1500 | - | 0.4–0.5 | 70 | MF of wastewater (oil and dye) [22] | |
Pressing | 1050–1100 | 43 | 0.5 | 20 | MF [33] | |
Support: pressing; UF: dip coating | Support: 900–1100; UF layer: 850–900 | Support 30–41; UF 27 | Support 1.4–6.3; UF 0.09 | - | UF [23] | |
Pressing | 950 | 30 | 0.1 | 60 | MF [21] |
Origin of Clay | Shaping Technique | Sintering Temperature, °C | Porosity, % | Pore Size, µm | Flexural Strength, MPa | Application |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argentina | Paste extrusion; slip casting | 1000; 1200–1400 | 50 | 0.08–0.55 | 16–34 | MF membrane [48] |
Brazil | Pressing | 1050 | - | 0.1–2 | 4–16 | Water clarification from microalgae [49] |
China | Dip coating | 600 | - | 3–10 nm | - | Removal of phosphate ions [46] |
Pressing | 1100–1350 | - | 1.4–1.9 and 10 | 45–69 | Support layer [47] | |
Paste casting | - | Above 50 | 10 nm | 12.5 | Oil-in-water emulsion filtration [50] | |
Paste casting | - | Above 50 | 3.6–20 nm | 28 | Oily wastewater and protein separation [51] | |
Paste casting | 400 | Above 60 | 12 nm | 5–7 | UF of oil-in-water emulsion [52] | |
India | Paste casting | 800–1000 | 42 | 4.58 | 11.55 | Removal of chromate [20] |
Paste extrusion | 950 | 53 | 0.309 | 12 | MF of oil-in-water emulsion [37] | |
Iran | Pressing | 900 | 30 | 0.16–0.3 | - | Removal of cationic dyes [53] |
Morocco | Pressing | 1000 | 25–40 | 0.01–1 | - | Support layer [54] |
Paste extrusion | 1250 | 43 | 11 | 10 | Support layer [55] | |
Paste extrusion | 1250 | - | - | - | Support layer [56] | |
Pressing | 700–1100 | - | 0.1–10 | - | Support layer [57] | |
Pressing | 950–1250 | - | 0.3–1.8 | - | Wastewater treatment [58] | |
Extrusion | 800 | 41 | 11 | 15 | Support layer [59] | |
Pressing | 950 | 28–40 | 1.5–2.8 | 14 | Support layer [60] | |
Pressing | 800–1050 | 32 | 1.2 | 22 | Wastewater filtration [61] | |
Pressing | 850–1000 | 23–34 | 1.4–1.8 | 14.6 | Support layer [62] | |
Pressing | 1100 | 28 | 2.5 | 17.5 | MF membrane [63] | |
Pressing | 1000–1200 | - | 0.08, 0.6 and 3.8 | - | Wastewater treatment [64] | |
NA | Pressing | 1000–1100 | 36 | 0.29–0.67 | 27–32 | MF of oil-in-water emulsion [65] |
Nigeria | Pressing | 1300 | - | 5–7 nm | 7–18 | UF of uranium from underground water [66] |
Spain | Paste extrusion | 850–1050 | 29–38 | 0.3–0.8 | 10–17 | Support layer [67] |
Pressing or Paste Extrusion | 1160 | 21–51 | 0.9–16 | 11–39 | Support layer [68] | |
Tunisia | Paste and slip casting | 1080; 900 | 49 | SL: 6.3; MF: 0.18 | - | MF of cuttlefish effluent [69] |
Slip casted | 800 | - | 15 nm | - | UF of solution purification [70] | |
Paste extrusion | 900–1100 | 38 | 0.6–1.04 | 19 | Support layer [71] |
Fabrication Technique | The Particle Size of Fly Ash (Additives) | Sintering Temperature °C | Porosity, % | Pore Size, µm | Flexural Strength, MPa | Application |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extrusion | <10 µm | 1100–1130 | 56–48 | 4.0–4.09 | 9.8–22.9 | Support layer [117] |
- | 1100–1500 | 30 | 0.5–1.0 | 8.5–85.8 | Support layer [122] | |
Extrusion followed slip casting | 15.41 µm; 5.01 µm; 1.41 µm | 1190; 1150; 1000 | - | 2.13; 1.94 and 0.77 | - | MF membranes [133] |
Paste casting | - | 900 | 42 | 0.885 | 43.6 | MF of humic acid containing solution [126] |
- | 800–1000 | 35–40 | 1.2 | 8–20 | MF of oil-in-water emulsions [127] | |
Pressing | 1.52 µm | 1200–1550 | 35–45 | 0.93–2.2 | 22–65 | Support layer [118] |
15.09 µm | 1300–1500 | 39–44 | 6.52–7.28 | 28–36 | Support layer [119] | |
3.9 µm (bauxite 7.4 µm) | 1200–1500 | 50 | 0.27–1.18 | 69.8 | Support layer [120] | |
11.94 µm (bauxite 5.66 µm) | 1100–1500 | 52 | 0.67–1.78 | 34–87 | MF of oil-in-water emulsion [121] | |
2.1 µm (bauxite 1.2 µm) | 1100–1500 | 48 | 0.18–0.26 | 81.2 | Support layer [123] | |
2.1 µm (bauxite 1.2 µm) | 1100–1400 | 47.3 | 0.12–0.37 | 60–68 | Support layer [124] | |
1.14 µm, (dolomite 4.2 µm) | 1100–1200 | 46 | 0.32 | 73 | Support layer [125] | |
2.53 µm (CaCO3 9.15 µm) | 1200–1350 | 49.6 | 0.5–1.2 | 34–90 | Support layer [128] | |
1–100 µm | 1100 | 48 | 1.3–2.9 | 13 | MF of oil-in-water emulsions [129] | |
1–2.5 µm | 1100 | 30–43 | 1.75–2.0 | 1.68–9.23 | MF of oil-in-water emulsions [130] | |
1–20 µm (mullite fiber) | 800–1200 | 34 | 1–2 | 30 | Support layer [134] | |
Slip casting | 1 µm | 800 | 51 | 0.25 | - | MF of textile industry effluent [116] |
Main Materials | Pore Size, µm | Oil Droplet Size, µm | Feed Concentration, mg/L | Removal of Oil, % |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clay | 0.5 | 6.9 | 200 | 96 [179] |
0.65 | 2.84 | 100 | 96.7 [32] | |
0.012 | 0.050–0.150 | 1350 | 97.4 [52] | |
Fly ash and bauxite | 0.48 | 2 | 250 | 99 [121] |
Fly ash and titania | 0.11 | 1.1 | 200 | 97 [122] |
Fly ash, quartz, and calcium carbonate | 1.36 | 6.9 | 200 | 97 [130] |
Fly ash, quartz, titania | 1.32 | 6.9 | 200 | 99.2 [129] |
Kaolin | 1.42–0.35 | 12 | - | 90–100 [25] |
Kaolin, ball clay | 0.31 | 1.21 | 200 | 99.98 [37] |
Kaolin, bentonite | <0.4 | 2.2 | 600 | 92.9 [65] |
Kaolin, quartz | 2.2 | - | 400 | 98.5 [31] |
Kaolin, quartz, calcium carbonate | 1.3 | 0.92 | 250 | 85 [11] |
Sugarcane bagasse ash | 1.8 | - | - | 99.9 [146] |
Mullite-carbon nanotube composite | 0.038 | 1.09 | 200 | 99.99 [180] |
α-Alumina | 0.05 | - | 500 | 97.7 [181] |
Zirconia/α-alumina | 0.2 | 1.79 | 1000 | >97.8 [182] |
Titania composite | 0.9 | - | 200 | 99.56 [183] |
The Material Used for the Preparation of Membrane | Cost of Raw Material (USD) |
---|---|
Clay, sodium metasilicate, sodium carbonate, and boric acid | 19 [20] |
Fly ash quartz and calcium carbonate | 5 [130] |
Fly ash, calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, and boric acid | 17 [127] |
Fly ash, quartz, calcium carbonate, and titania | 25 [129] |
Fly ash and titania | 2 [122] |
Kaolin, ball clay, feldspar, calcium carbonate, and pyrophyllite | 10 [12] |
Kaolin, quartz, ball clay, pyrophyllite, and feldspar | 4 [37] |
Kaolin, quartz, calcium carbonate | 61 [11] |
Kaolin, quartz, calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, boric acid, sodium metasilicate, and polyvinyl alcohol | 78 [30] |
kaolin, quartz, calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, boric acid, and sodium metasilicate | 130 [10] |
135 [191] |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Abdullayev, A.; Bekheet, M.F.; Hanaor, D.A.H.; Gurlo, A. Materials and Applications for Low-Cost Ceramic Membranes. Membranes 2019, 9, 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes9090105
Abdullayev A, Bekheet MF, Hanaor DAH, Gurlo A. Materials and Applications for Low-Cost Ceramic Membranes. Membranes. 2019; 9(9):105. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes9090105
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbdullayev, Amanmyrat, Maged F. Bekheet, Dorian A.H. Hanaor, and Aleksander Gurlo. 2019. "Materials and Applications for Low-Cost Ceramic Membranes" Membranes 9, no. 9: 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes9090105