Next Article in Journal
Perceived COVID-19 Vaccine Pressure in the Caribbean: Exploring a New Stressor–Strain Phenomenon in the Pandemic
Next Article in Special Issue
Assessment of Attitudes, Main Concerns and Sources of Knowledge Regarding COVID-19 Vaccination in Poland in the Unvaccinated Individuals—A Nationwide Survey
Previous Article in Journal
Gender Differences in Adverse Events Following the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine
Previous Article in Special Issue
Vaccine Coverage against Influenza and SARS-CoV-2 in Health Sciences Students during COVID-19 Pandemic in Spain
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Vaccines
Volume 10
Issue 2
10.3390/vaccines10020237
vaccines-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Attitude towards Vaccination of Health Sciences Students at a Spanish University Improved over the First 18 Months of the COVID-19 Pandemic

by
Francisco Javier Pérez-Rivas
1,2,*,
Ramón Del Gallego-Lastra
1,3,
Cristina Maria Alves Marques-Vieira
4,
Candelas López-López
1,2,5,6,
Silvia Domínguez-Fernández
2,7,
Milagros Rico-Blázquez
1,2,8 and
María Julia Ajejas Bazán
1,2,9
1
Departamento de Enfermería, Facultad de Enfermería, Fisioterapia y Podología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Plaza Ramón y Cajal no. 3, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain
2
Grupo de Investigación UCM “Salud Pública-Estilos de Vida, Metodología Enfermera y Cuidados en el Entorno Comunitario”, Departamento de Enfermería, Facultad de Enfermería, Fisioterapia y Podología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
3
Grupo de Investigación UCM “Humanidades, Ciencia y Salud”, Departamento de Enfermería, Facultad de Enfermería, Fisioterapia y Podología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28035 Madrid, Spain
4
Center Interdisciplinary Research in Health (CIIS), Nursing School (Lisbon), Institute of Health Sciences, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, 1649-023 Lisbon, Portugal
5
Grupo de Investigación en Cuidados (InveCuid), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), 28041 Madrid, Spain
6
Department of Intensive Care, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, 28041 Madrid, Spain
7
Centro Municipal de Salud Comunitaria Centro, Madrid Salud, Ayuntamiento de Madrid, 28013 Madrid, Spain
8
Unidad de Investigación de la Gerencia Asistencial de Atención Primaria, Servicio Madrileño de la Salud, 28035 Madrid, Spain
9
Academia Central de la Defensa, Escuela Militar de Sanidad, Ministerio de Defensa, 28040 Madrid, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Vaccines 2022, 10(2), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10020237
Submission received: 23 December 2021 / Revised: 28 January 2022 / Accepted: 1 February 2022 / Published: 3 February 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Vaccination and Compliance/Hesitancy)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
It is important to know the attitudes of students of health sciences (SHSs) towards vaccination since they will be tomorrow’s health professionals. Vaccination is a powerful tool in the fight against COVID-19. The aim of the present, cross-sectional study was to examine how the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced the attitude of SHSs towards vaccination. Data were collected in the form of a questionnaire from all students of nursing, physiotherapy and chiropody matriculated at a Madrid University for the academic year 2019/2020 (i.e., before the start of the pandemic [Q1]), and from all those matriculated for the year 2021/22 (i.e., c18 months after the pandemic was declared [Q2]). A multivariate analysis was performed to identify the influence of sex, degree being studied, course year and the time of answering (Q1 or Q2), on the dimensions Beliefs, Behaviours and General Attitude. Overall, 1894 questionnaires were returned (934 [49.3%] for Q1, and 960 [50.7%] for Q2), of which 70.5% were completed by students of nursing, 14% by students of physiotherapy and 15.4% by those studying chiropody. In Q2, the results for all three dimensions were significantly better (p < 0.05). The most important influencing factors were being a student of nursing, being in the final years of training (years 3 or 4), female gender and answering at the time of Q2. The results obtained are encouraging since student nurses (who showed Q1 and Q2 General Attitude scores of 3.34 and 3.47 (maximum possible 4), respectively [p < 0.05]) are the health professionals of tomorrow most likely to be involved in vaccination programmes.

1. Introduction

Despite vaccination being among the most successful means of controlling transmissible diseases [1], recent years have seen the rise of anti-vaccination movements, the rhetoric of which has contributed towards vaccine hesitancy [2,3]—even among health professionals [4,5]. This is particularly worrying, since the latter have a great influence on the patients they see [6,7]. Indeed, it is well known that the beliefs and attitudes of health professionals influence the behaviour of, and decisions taken by, their patients (and their respective families) with regard to vaccination [8,9,10]. Students of the health sciences (SHSs) will be tomorrow’s health professionals, and on their shoulders will lie the responsibility of carrying out future vaccination programmes. Knowing their attitudes towards vaccination is, therefore, important; this might help in the task of allaying their fears and concerns.
A number of international studies have shown that attitudes can vary considerably depending on where, when and how they are examined. For example, reports from Serbia [11], Florida (USA) [12], Australia [13] and central and southern Italy [14] highlight more positive attitudes than others from the USA [15], Germany [16], Canada [17] and Italy (Messina) [18]. In January 2020, our group examined the general attitude of students of nursing, physiotherapy and chiropody (all at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain) towards vaccination [19], and found attitudes to be generally positive, especially among students of nursing, female students and students in their final years.
The vaccination programme to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, which began to affect Europe in the first quarter of 2020 [20], has been the subject of controversy, with the media, politicians and the general public taking very different positions [21]. Although the papers being published on the safety and effectiveness of the vaccines used have reduced hesitancy in some groups [22], there has also been an “infodemic” with messages designed to misinform and confuse the public [23]. Google Trends data reveal anti-vaccine searches to have risen continuously in number over the course of the pandemic [24], and anti-vaxxers and COVID-deniers have had a notable presence in the media [25]. The aim of the present cross-sectional study was to compare the attitudes of SHSs at a Spanish university towards vaccination before and during the pandemic (18 months in).

2. Materials and Methods

The study subjects were 3222 students of nursing, physiotherapy and chiropody at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Madrid, Spain), 1582 of whom were matricu-lated for the academic year 2019/2020 (i.e., before the pandemic was declared), and 1640 of whom were matriculated for the year 2021/2022 (i.e., which began c18 months after the pandemic was declared). All matriculated students, irrespective of their course year, were asked to complete the “Attitudes and Behaviour with Regard To Vaccination Among Health Science Students Questionnaire” (ACVECS according to its Spanish initials—Cuestionario sobre Actitudes y Conductas hacia la Vacunación entre Estudiantes de Ciencias de la Salud) [26]) between 15–30 January 2020 (Q1), and 1 October to 22 November 2021 (Q2). Thus, all students completed at least one questionnaire, and some completed both Q1 and Q2. The ACVECS questionnaire is composed of 24 items, the first 15 of which examine the dimension “Beliefs”, and the last nine “Behaviour”. Taken together, these 24 items determine the “General Attitude” towards vaccination [19,26]. In the validation analysis performed by the questionnaire’s authors, ordinal α (a rating of reliability) was 0.92, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin index was 0.90, and the Barlet sphericity value was χ2 = 4142.1 (p < 0.001). The answer provided for each item is recorded on a five-point Likert scale from 0 = totally disagree, to 4 = totally agree (items 1, 2, 7, 8, 15 and 23 have inverted scoring) [19,26]. Beliefs, Behaviour and General Attitude scores of ≥3 were considered positive (i.e., vaccination favourable), ≤1 negative and 2 neutral or indifferent.
Data were collected during visits to classrooms. The students were told the purpose of the study and that their anonymity was assured. Those students who wished to take part did so over a period of 10–15 min of classroom time using the Google Forms online platform. Sample size requirement analysis showed that 310 respondents were needed for a 5% error and 95% confidence limits, as discussed in previous studies [19]. The data collected were then transferred to a Microsoft Excel 365® database.
Means and standard deviation were calculated for quantitative variables, and frequencies and percentages for qualitative variables. Student’s t-test was used to compare quantitative variables, and the chi-squared test to compare qualitative variables. The effect of gender, age, degree being studied, course year (1, 2, 3 or 4) and the time of answering (Q1 or Q2) on Beliefs, Behaviour and General Attitude were examined by multiple linear regression (forward stepwise, with an F probability value of ≤0.05 for entry and >0.10 for exit). Significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. All calculations were performed using SPSS® v.25.0 software.
The study was approved by the Research Committee of the Faculty of Nursing, Physiotherapy and Chiropody, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, and by the Ethics in Research Committee of the Hospital Universitario Clínico San Carlos (CI: 20/376-E).

3. Results

Of the 3222 students matriculated over the two academic years, 1894 (58.8%) completed the questionnaire, i.e., 934 (49.3%) at Q1, and 960 (50.7%) at Q2. Some 70.5% of the returned questionnaires were provided by students of nursing, 14% by students of physiotherapy and 15.6% by those studying chiropody. Taking into account the number of students studying each of these degrees, the participation by students of nursing was somewhat higher (64.8%, compared with 47.3% for students of physiotherapy, and 48.9% for those studying chiropody). Participation was slightly lower among students studying their final years (Table 1). Women made up 80.9% of all respondents (85.3% of nursing students were female, as were 80.1% of chiropody students and 59.8% of physiotherapy students; p < 0.001). The mean age of respondents was 21.4 ± 0.26 years (range 17–60 years). The students of chiropody were a little older (22.0 ± 0.59 years) than those studying nursing (21.5 ± 0.33 years) or physiotherapy (20.6 ± 0.53 years) (p = 0.011).
For Q2, the results for the three dimensions measured by the AVECS questionnaire, i.e., Beliefs, Behaviours and General Attitude, were all significantly better (p < 0.05) than those recorded for Q1 (Table 2).
Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5 show the change in scores between Q1 and Q2 for all three dimensions measured, with respect to gender, degree being studied and course year. Compared with the Q1 scores, the Q2 scores for students of nursing showed significant improvements in all dimensions (p < 0.05). Furthermore, taking students of all three degrees together, Q2 improvements were seen for both men and women, and for students in their first and third years (p < 0.05). Q2 improvements were, in fact, seen across the board for students of all degrees, although not always so clearly in each of the dimensions measured. No Q2 scores were poorer than Q1 scores.
Taking the students of all three degrees together, the Q2 scores for 16 of the 24 (66.7%) questionnaire items (nos. 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 22, 23, 24 in Table 6) were significantly higher than the corresponding Q1 scores. Five (nos. 1, 5, 17, 19, 21) of the remaining eight items also showed higher Q2 scores, but the differences were not significant due to the already high corresponding Q1 scores. No significant difference was seen between the Q1 and Q2 scores for the remaining three items (nos. 4, 12, 18) (Table 6).
Table 7 shows the results of the multivariate analysis, identifying the influencing independent variables and their effect size, for all three AVECS dimensions measured. Being a student of nursing was the variable that most positively influenced the scores for all three, followed by answering at the time of Q2. Being in the fourth (final) year of any degree was also associated with improvements in Beliefs and General Attitude, whereas the female sex was related to better Behaviour and General Attitude. Being in the third year of one’s degree had a positive impact on beliefs.

4. Discussion

This is the first work to compare attitudes towards vaccination among SHSs during the present pandemic. The results show that these were generally very positive to begin with, and that they improved during these difficult times. Some students, however, revealed some reticence in their answers to certain questions. For example, 10.1% were doubtful about the effectiveness of vaccination, and 14% questioned its cost-effectiveness. These results, which are similar to those reported by other authors who used the same questionnaire [26], could be conditioned by a poor perception of the risk posed by infectious disease to the young population [27,28], or a lack of knowledge of vaccination in general and vaccination programs in particular [11,12,17]. The fact that the chiropody students do not undertake practical studies at health centres, and considering their—and physiotherapists’—lesser involvement in vaccination programs, might also have influenced the results [19,29].
Previous studies have examined the change in attitude towards vaccination shown by the general population and health professionals. The Vaccine Confidence project reported that, between 2018 and 2020, public confidence in vaccines increased in most European countries, with the populations of Spain and Portugal the most confident of all [30]. In Spain, general confidence in vaccines grew from 64% to 70% (i.e., the percentage of respondents replying positively to [in agreement with] all items in the questionnaire used). The authors of that study point out that these findings could be influenced by people’s perception of the seriousness of the pandemic. Other authors report a significant increase in general confidence in vaccination among the Italian population one year into the pandemic [31]. Similarly, vaccine hesitancy is reported to have diminished in Turkey [32] and Japan [33]. However, in the USA, there has been a general reduction in favourable attitudes towards vaccination over the course of the pandemic [34], with attitudes worsening among Republican voters but remaining stable among Democrat voters. Other studies, performed between March and August 2020, have shown growing reticence towards being vaccinated against COVID-19 among British and Irish populations [35].
With respect to healthcare personnel, Ledda et al. report attitudes to have improved among professionals at an Italian hospital over the course of the pandemic [36]. Della Polla et al. also report Italian workers (including healthcare workers) and students at the University of Naples to have shown a clear improvement in their attitude towards vaccination, and positive change towards employing general preventive measures against COVID-19, including the use of masks, washing hands and social distancing [37].
Several other studies report that the pandemic has changed the attitude of the general population [38], and of healthcare professionals, towards vaccination against influenza [39,40], perhaps due to an increased consciousness of airborne transmission [41].
In the present work, the factors that most influenced having a positive attitude were being a student of nursing, answering at the time of Q2, female gender and being in recent years of study.
The influence of being a student of nursing rather than another discipline (stronger even than the time of answering the questionnaire [Q1 or Q2]) may be explained by the fact that nurses are more involved and have greater responsibilities in vaccination programmes [29] and receive more information about, and training in, vaccination than the students of the other present degrees, and the correlation that exists between knowledge and attitude towards vaccination [11,15,42]. Other studies have reported the good disposition of students of nursing towards vaccination [26,42]. In fact, in a study performed in seven European countries, Spanish students of nursing showed the strongest disposition towards vaccination against COVID-19, followed by those studying in Italy [43].
After adjusting for age, sex and degree type, etc., answering at the time of Q2 was related to improvements in the measured dimensions, supporting the hypothesis that the pandemic has had a positive effect on attitude towards vaccination.
The students in their final years showed a better attitude towards vaccination, a phenomenon identified in earlier studies from Spain [26,42] and other countries [11,44,45,46]. This is probably related to the greater knowledge acquired and capacities developed by students further on in their studies. It should be noted that recent studies on vaccination against COVID-19 report the same [47,48]. In fact, non-health science students with greater knowledge of the COVID-19 vaccines are also reported to show better attitudes [14]. The strength of the relationship between deeper knowledge and acceptance of vaccination may be influenced by the effectiveness of information campaigns [14,30].
The better results seen for female students in the present work agree with previously reported studies [49,50,51]. It may be that women show greater solidarity [52], or that since male students of nursing are reduced in number, they may more often decline to take part in group activities that might influence their attitudes [53].
The good—and later, further improved—attitude towards vaccination seen in the present work is important since many studies concur that such attitudes improve the likelihood of requesting the influenza [54,55,56,57] and COVID-19 vaccines [43,48,58].
Finally, the present work has a number of limitations. The sample, although large, may not be entirely representative of SHSs at the national level; further studies at other universities are required to confirm the results. Moreover, the data used in analyses came from self-answered questionnaires, and such data can be affected by respondents’ willingness to please.

5. Conclusions

The overall attitude of the present students towards vaccination was good, and improved significantly during the first 18 months of the pandemic, perhaps in part because of the education received and in part as a result of living through these times with their attendant fears and worries. The results show that attitudes can change for the better, reinforcing the need to promote health and increase the public’s knowledge regarding vaccines and vaccination.
The fact that the COVID-19 vaccines can protect people from the worst of the disease, plus the information campaign surrounding vaccination against COVID-19, has probably improved people’s perception of vaccination in general, making them more likely to accept vaccination against other diseases.
Further studies in other populations of health sciences students are required, both nationally and internationally. It will also be important to determine whether the improvements seen in this work are maintained after the pandemic has finally ended.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation and methodology: F.J.P.-R. and R.D.G.-L.; validation, formal analysis and writing—original draft preparation: F.J.P.-R., C.M.A.M.-V., R.D.G.-L. and M.J.A.B.; research, writing—review: F.J.P.-R., R.D.G.-L., C.M.A.M.-V., M.J.A.B., C.L.-L., S.D.-F. and M.R.-B.; editing and visualisation: F.J.P.-R., R.D.G.-L., C.M.A.M.-V. and M.J.A.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was funded by the Universidad Complutense de Madrid via the ‘Ayudas Económicas a los Grupos de Investigación UCM (Aplicación presupuestaria G/6400100/3000)’.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics in Research Committee of the Hospital Universitario Clínico San Carlos (protocol code 20/376-E and date of approval: 7 May 2021).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the patient(s) to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the leaders of the nursing, physiotherapy and chiropody courses for allowing visits to classrooms, and all those students who took part.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Andre, E.; Booy, R.; Bock, H.L.; Clemens, J.; Datta, S.K.; John, T.J.; Lee, B.W.; Lolekha, S.; Peltola, H.; A Ruff, T.; et al. Vaccination greatly reduces disease, disability, death and inequity worldwide. Bull. World Health Organ. 2008, 86, 140–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Dubé, E.; Vivion, M.; MacDonald, E.N. Vaccine hesitancy, vaccine refusal and the anti-vaccine movement: Influence, impact and implications. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2015, 14, 99–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Larson, S.; de Figueiredo, A.; Karafillakis, E.; Rawal, M. The State of Vaccine Confidence in the EU 2018. Luxemburg: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2018. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/sites/health/files/vaccination/docs/2018_vaccine_confidence_en.pdf (accessed on 2 December 2021).
  4. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Vaccine Hesitancy among Healthcare Workers and Their Patients in Europe-A Qualitative Study; ECDC: Stockholm, Sweden, 2015. Available online: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/media/en/publications/Publications/vaccine-hesitancy-among-healthcare-workers.pdf (accessed on 2 December 2021).
  5. Karafillakis, E.; Dinca, I.; Apfel, F.; Cecconi, S.; Wűrz, A.; Takacs, J.; Suk, J.; Celentano, L.P.; Kramarz, P.; Larson, H.J. Vaccine hesitancy among healthcare workers in Europe: A qualitative study. Vaccine 2016, 34, 5013–5020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Yaqub, O.; Castle-Clarke, S.; Sevdalis, N.; Chataway, J. Attitudes to vaccination: A critical review. Soc. Sci. Med. 2014, 112, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  7. Paterson, P.; Meurice, F.; Stanberry, L.R.; Glismann, S.; Rosenthal, S.L.; Larson, H.J. Vaccine hesitancy and healthcare providers. Vaccine 2016, 34, 6700–6706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  8. Dubé, E. Addressing vaccine hesitancy: The crucial role of healthcare providers. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2017, 23, 279–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  9. Herzog, R.; Álvarez-Pasquin, M.J.; Díaz, C.; Del Barrio, J.L.; Estrada, J.M.; Gil, Á. Are healthcare workers’ intentions to vaccinate related to their knowledge, beliefs and attitudes? A systematic review. BMC Public Health 2013, 13, 154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Mergler, M.J.; Omer, S.B.; Pan, W.K.; Navar-Boggan, A.M.; Orenstein, W.; Marcuse, E.K.; Taylor, J.; Dehart, M.P.; Carter, T.C.; Damico, A.; et al. Association of vaccine-related attitudes and beliefs between parents and health care providers. Vaccine 2013, 31, 4591–4595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Cvjetkovic, S.J.; Jeremic, V.L.; Tiosavljevic, D.V. Knowledge and attitudes toward vaccination: A survey of Serbian students. J. Infect. Public Health 2017, 10, 649–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Berera, D.; Thompson, K.M. Medical Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Regarding Immunization. J. Vaccines Vaccin. 2012, 6, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Walker, L.; Newall, A.; Heywood, A.E. Knowledge, attitudes and practices of Australian medical students towards influenza vaccination. Vaccine 2016, 34, 6193–6199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Gallè, F.; Sabella, E.A.; Roma, P.; De Giglio, O.; Caggiano, G.; Tafuri, S.; Da Molin, G.; Ferracuti, S.; Montagna, M.T.; Liguori, G.; et al. Knowledge and Acceptance of COVID-19 Vaccination among Undergraduate Students from Central and Southern Italy. Vaccines 2021, 9, 638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Dybsand, L.L.; Hall, K.J.; Carson, P.J. Immunization attitudes, opinions, and knowledge of healthcare professional students at two Midwestern universities in the United States. BMC Med. Educ. 2019, 19, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Lehmann, A.B.; Ruiter, R.A.C.; Wicker, S.; Chapman, G.; Kok, G. Medical students’ attitude towards influenza vaccination. BMC Infect. Dis. 2015, 15, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Pelly, L.P.; MacDougall, D.M.P.; A Halperin, B.; Strang, A.R.; Bowles, S.K.; Baxendale, D.M.; McNeil, A.S. The Vaxed Project: An Assessment of Immunization Education in Canadian Health Professional Programs. BMC Med. Educ. 2010, 10, 86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. La Fauci, V.; Squeri, R.; Genovese, C.; Anzalone, C.; Fedele, F.; Squeri, A.; Alessi, V. An observational study of university students of healthcare area: Knowledge, attitudes and behaviour towards vaccinations. Clin Ter. 2019, 170, e448–e453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Pérez-Rivas, F.J.; Del Gallego-Lastra, R.; Esteban-Garcimartín, A.; Marques-Vieira, C.M.A.; Ajejas-Bazán, M.J. Attitude towards Vaccination among Health Science Students before the COVID-19 Pandemic. Vaccines 2021, 9, 644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Rapid Risk Assessment: Outbreak of Novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19.): Increased Transmission Globally; ECDC: Stockholm, Sweden, 2020. Available online: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/RRA-outbreak-novel-coronavirus-disease-2019-increase-transmission-globally-COVID-19.pdf (accessed on 2 December 2021).
  21. Cuello, J.M.A. La pandemia de la COVID-19 como debate público: El caso español. Anu. Electrónico Estud. Comun. Social Disert. 2021, 14, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Pal, S.; Shekhar, R.; Kottewar, S.; Upadhyay, S.; Singh, M.; Pathak, D.; Kapuria, D.; Barrett, E.; Sheikh, A.B. COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Attitude toward Booster Doses among US Healthcare Workers. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Mingarro, F.A.I.; Castellanos Claramunt, J.C. COVID-19, fake news and vaccination: The need to immunize society from vaccine hesitancy. Cuad. Bioética Rev. Of. Asoc. Española Bioética Ética Médica 2021, 32, 63–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Pullan, S.; Dey, M. Vaccine hesitancy and anti-vaccination in the time of COVID-19: A Google Trends analysis. Vaccine 2021, 39, 1877–1881. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Hotez, P. COVID-19 and the rise of anti-science. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2021, 20, 227–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Fernández-Prada, M.; Ramos-Martín, P.; Madroñal-Menéndez, J.; Martínez-Ortega, C.; González-Cabrera, J. Diseño y validación de un cuestionario sobre vacunación en estudiantes de ciencias de la salud. Rev. Esp. Salud. Publica 2016, 7, e1–e10. [Google Scholar]
  27. Agüero Santagelo, F.; Nebot Adell, M.; Pérez Giménez, A.A.; López Medina, M.J.; García Continente, X. Attitudes and preventive behaviours adopted during the (H1N1) 2009 influenza virus epidemic in Spain. Rev. Esp. Salud Publica 2011, 85, 73–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Saura, S.; Jorquera, V.; Mascort, C.; Castellà, I. Gender meanings of the risk of sexually transmitted infections/HIV transmission among young people. Aten. Primaria 2020, 52, 218–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Forcada, J.A. El acto vacunal. Vacunas 2014, 15, 272–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Figueiredo, A.; Karafillakis, E. Vaccine Confidence Project. State of Vaccine Confidence in the EU+UK. A Report for the European Commission; European Union, 2020: Luxemburgo. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/health/sites/default/files/vaccination/docs/2020_confidence_rep_en.pdf (accessed on 7 December 2021).
  31. Domnich, A.; Grassi, R.; Fallani, E.; Spurio, A.; Bruzzone, B.; Panatto, D.; Marozzi, B.; Cambiaggi, M.; Vasco, A.; Orsi, A.; et al. Changes in Attitudes and Beliefs Concerning Vaccination and Influenza Vaccines between the First and Second COVID-19 Pandemic Waves: A Longitudinal Study. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Yılmazbaş, P.; Terzi, Ö.; Özçeker, D. Did COVID-19 Pandemic Changed Parents’ Approach to Vaccination? Erciyes Med. J. 2021, 43, 130–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Harada, T.; Watanabe, T. Changes in Vaccine Hesitancy in Japan across Five Months during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Its Related Factors. Vaccines 2022, 10, 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Fridman, A.; Gershon, R.; Gneezy, A. COVID-19 and vaccine hesitancy: A longitudinal study. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0250123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Hyland, P.; Vallières, F.; Shevlin, M.; Bentall, R.P.; McKay, R.; Hartman, T.K.; McBride, O.; Murphy, J. Resistance to COVID-19 vaccination has increased in Ireland and the United Kingdom during the pandemic. Public Health 2021, 195, 54–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Ledda, C.; Costantino, C.; Cuccia, M.; Maltezou, C.C.; Rapisarda, V. Attitudes of Healthcare Personnel towards Vaccinations before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Della Polla, G.; Pelullo, C.P.; Di Giuseppe, G.; Angelillo, I.F. Changes in Behaviors and Attitudes in Response to COVID-19 Pandemic and Vaccination in Healthcare Workers and University Students in Italy. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Bachtiger, P.; Adamson, A.; Chow, J.J.; Sisodia, R.; Quint, J.K.; Peters, N.S. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Uptake of Influenza Vaccine: UK-Wide Observational Study. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2021, 7, e26734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Bertoni, L.; Roncadori, A.; Gentili, N.; Danesi, V.; Massa, I.; Nanni, O.; Altini, M.; Gabutti, G.; Montella, M.T. How has COVID-19 pandemic changed flu vaccination attitudes among an Italian cancer center healthcare workers? Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 2021, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Stöckeler, A.M.; Schuster, P.; Zimmermann, M.; Hanses, F. Influenza vaccination coverage among emergency department personnel is associated with perception of vaccination and side effects, vaccination availability on site and the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0260213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Wang, K.; Wong, E.; Ho, K.F.; Cheung, A.; Chan, E.; Yeoh, E.K.; Wong, S. Intention of nurses to accept coronavirus disease 2019 vaccination and change of intention to accept seasonal influenza vaccination during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic: A cross-sectional survey. Vaccine 2020, 38, 7049–7056. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Tuells, J.; Egoavil, C.M.; Morales-Moreno, I.; Fortes-Montoya, E.; Salazar-García, C.; Rodríguez-Blanco, N. Knowledge, Attitudes, and Sources of Information on Vaccines in Spanish Nursing Students: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Patelarou, E.; Galanis, P.; Mechili, E.A.; Argyriadi, A.; Argyriadis, A.; Asimakopoulou, E.; Brokaj, S.; Bucaj, J.; Carmona-Torres, J.M.; Cobo-Cuenca, A.I.; et al. Factors influencing nursing students’ intention to accept COVID-19 vaccination: A pooled analysis of seven European countries. Nurse Educ. Today 2021, 104, 105010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Mjrby, L.M.; Sahli, A.A.; Alsrori, Z.M.; Kamili, F.H.; Althurwi, H.A.; Zalah, A.A.; Alharbi, H.M.; Alharbi, H.M. Knowledge and attitudes toward vaccination among Saudi medical students. J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care 2020, 9, 2079–2084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Rostkowska, O.M.; Peters, A.; Montvidas, J.; Magdas, T.M.; Rensen, L.; Zgliczyński, W.S.; Durlik, M.; Pelzer, B.W. Attitudes and Knowledge of European Medical Students and Early Graduates about Vaccination and Self-Reported Vaccination Coverage-Multinational Cross-Sectional Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Szmyd, B.; Bartoszek, A.; Karuga, F.F.; Staniecka, K.; Błaszczyk, M.; Radek, M. Medical Students and SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination: Attitude and Behaviors. Vaccines 2021, 9, 128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Sovicova, M.; Zibolenova, J.; Svihrova, V.; Hudeckova, H. Odds Ratio Estimation of Medical Students’ Attitudes towards COVID-19 Vaccination. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6815. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Sugawara, N.; Yasui-Furukori, N.; Fukushima, A.; Shimoda, K. Attitudes of Medical Students toward COVID-19 Vaccination: Who Is Willing to Receive a Third Dose of the Vaccine? Vaccines 2021, 9, 1295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Zarobkiewicz, M.K.; Zimecka, A.; Zuzak, T.; Cieślak, D.; Roliński, J.; Grywalska, E. Vaccination among Polish university students. Knowledge, beliefs and anti-vaccination attitudes. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 2017, 13, 2654–2658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  50. Villanueva, S.; Mosteiro-Miguéns, D.G.; Domínguez-Martís, E.M.; López-Ares, D.; Novío, S. Knowledge, Attitudes, and Intentions towards Human Papillomavirus Vaccination among Nursing Students in Spain. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. Chen, G.; Wu, B.; Dai, X.; Zhang, M.; Liu, Y.; Huang, H.; Mei, K.; Wu, Z. Gender Differences in Knowledge and Attitude towards HPV and HPV Vaccine among College Students in Wenzhou, China. Vaccines 2022, 10, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Christensen, M.; Welch, A.; Barr, J. Men are from Mars: The challenges of communicating as a male nursing student. Nurse Educ. Pract. 2018, 33, 102–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Jiang, N.; Wei, B.; Lin, H.; Wang, Y.; Chai, S.; Liu, W. Nursing students’ attitudes, knowledge and willingness of to receive the coronavirus disease vaccine: A cross-sectional study. Nurse Educ. Pract. 2021, 55, 103148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Rogers, C.J.; Bahr, K.O.; Benjamin, S.M. Attitudes and barriers associated with seasonal influenza vaccination uptake among public health students; a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2018, 18, 1131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Cornally, N.; Deasy, E.A.; McCarthey, G.; McAuley, C.; Moran, J.; Weathers, E. Student nurses’ intention to get the influenza vaccine. Br. J. Nurs. 2013, 22, 1207–1211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Cheung, K.; Ho, S.M.S.; Lam, W. Factors affecting the willingness of nursing students to receive annual seasonal influenza vaccination: A large-scale cross-sectional study. Vaccine 2017, 35, 1482–1487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Lee, D.; Rundle-Thiele, S.; Li, G. Motivating Seasonal Influenza Vaccination and Cross-Promoting COVID-19 Vaccination: An Audience Segmentation Study among University Students. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Zhou, Y.; Wang, Y.; Li, Z. Intention to get vaccinated against COVID-19 among nursing students: A cross-sectional survey. Nurse Educ. Today 2021, 107, 105152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table
Table 1. Participation in terms of degree being pursued and course year (Q1, Q2 and Total).
Table 1. Participation in terms of degree being pursued and course year (Q1, Q2 and Total).
SurveyDegreeTotal MatriculatedTotal Participating SubjectsParticipating Subjects by Course Year
1°2°3°4°
n (%)n (%)n (%)n (%)n (%)n (%)
Q1
(Jan/2020)		Nursing1039 (65.6)624 (66.9)220 (35.2)192 (30.8)120 (19.3)92 (14.7)
Physiotherapy262 (16.6)162 (17.3)40 (24.6)50 (30.8)30(18.5)42 (25.9)
Chiropody281 (17.8)148 (15.8)32 (21.6)58 (39.2)28 (18.9)30 (20.3)
Total1582 (100.0)934 (100.0)292 (31.2)300 (32.1)178 (19.2)164 (17.5)
Q2
(OCT/NOV
2021)		Nursing1024 (62.4)712 (74.2)171 (24.0)150 (21.1)194 (27.2)197 (27.7)
Physiotherapy300 (18.3)104 (10.8)42 (40.4)29 (27.9)18(17.3)15 (14.4)
Chiropody316 (19.3)144 (15.0)42 (29.2)30 (20.8)41 (28.5)31 (21.5)
Total1640 (100.0)960(100.0)255 (26.6)209 (21.8)253 (26.4)243 (25.3)
TOTAL (Q1/Q2)Nursing2063 (64.0)1336 (70.5)391 (29.3)342 (25.6)314 (23.5)289 (21.6)
Physiotherapy562 (17.4)266 (14.0)82 (30.8)79 (29.7)48(18.0)57 (21.4)
Chiropody597 (18.5)292 (15.4)74 (25.0)88 (29.7)69 (23.3)61 (20.6)
Total3222 (100.0)1894 (100.0)547 (28.9)509 (26.9)431 (22.8)407 (21.5)
Table
Table 2. Distribution of scores for the ACVECS questionnaire dimensions (Q1 and Q2).
Table 2. Distribution of scores for the ACVECS questionnaire dimensions (Q1 and Q2).
SurveyBeliefs
Mean ± SD		p ValueBehaviour
Mean ± SD		p ValueGeneral Attitude Mean ± SDp Value
Q1(ENE/2020)3.23 ± 0.47 0.001 3.35 ± 0.510.0093.27 ± 0.460.006
Q2 (OCT_NOV/2021)3.38 ± 0.45 3.47 ± 0.473.41 ± 0.43
Table
Table 3. Distribution of Q1 and Q2 scores for the Beliefs dimension of the ACVECS questionnaire with respect to gender, degree being studied, and course year for each degree and as a whole for all degrees taken together.
Table 3. Distribution of Q1 and Q2 scores for the Beliefs dimension of the ACVECS questionnaire with respect to gender, degree being studied, and course year for each degree and as a whole for all degrees taken together.
VariablesCategoriesBeliefs Q1
Mean ± SD		Beliefs Q2
Mean ± SD		p Value
SexMale3.15 ± 0.463.34 ± 0.510.001
Female3.24 ± 0.503.39 ± 0.43p < 0.0001
DegreeNursing3.28 ± 0.433.44 ± 0.41p < 0.0001
Physiotherapy3.07 ± 0.513.22 ± 0.510.023
Chiropody3.14 ± 0.533.23 ± 0.500.161
Course year for all degrees taken together1st3.17 ± 0.483.34 ± 0.41p < 0.0001
2nd3.22 ± 0.463.33 ± 0.470.009
3rd3.23 ± 0.493.44 ± 0.45p < 0.0001
4th3.33 ± 0.463.42 ± 0.450.063
Nursing course year1st3.19 ± 0.453.34 ± 0.380.001
2nd3.29 ± 0.423.38 ± 0.420.050
3rd3.32 ± 0.393.51 ± 0.40p < 0.0001
4th3.42 ± 0.423.47 ± 0.410.407
Physiotherapy course year1st3.07 ± 0.423.26 ± 0.490.068
2nd3.02 ± 0.483.01 ± 0.610.952
3rd2.88 ± 0.643.46 ± 0.350.001
4th3.26 ± 0.453.20 ± 0.420.695
Chiropody course year1st3.13 ± 0.663.38 ± 0.390.051
2nd3.13 ± 0.483.34 ± 0.470.060
3rd3.20 ± 0.533.05 ± 0.510.241
4th3.12 ± 0.503.16 ± 0.580.815
Table
Table 4. Distribution of Q1 and Q2 scores for the Behaviour dimension of the ACVECS questionnaire with respect to gender, degree being studied, and course year for each degree and as a whole for all degrees taken together.
Table 4. Distribution of Q1 and Q2 scores for the Behaviour dimension of the ACVECS questionnaire with respect to gender, degree being studied, and course year for each degree and as a whole for all degrees taken together.
VariablesCategoriesBehaviour Q Mean ± SDBehaviour Q2
Mean ± SD		p Value
SexMale3.25 ± 0.533.36 ± 0.540.040
Female3.38 ± 0.503.49 ± 0.45p < 0.0001
DegreeNursing3.42 ± 0.453.52 ± 0.44p < 0.0001
Physiotherapy3.16 ± 0.623.30 ± 0.540.061
Chiropody3.29 ± 0.573.36 ± 0.530.264
Course year for all degrees taken together1st3.38 ± 0.503.46 ± 0.440.049
2nd3.34 ± 0.513.41 ± 0.520.134
3rd3.29 ± 0.583.49 ± 0.47p < 0.0001
4th 3.39 ± 0.473.50 ± 0.470.026
Nursing course year1st3.40 ± 0.463.48 ± 0.430.125
2nd3.43 ± 0.433.48 ± 0.480.370
3rd3.35 ± 0.483.55 ± 0.43p < 0.0001
4th3.50 ± 0.413.55 ± 0.420.407
Physiotherapy course year1st3.25 ± 0.593.43 ± 0.500.164
2nd3.10 ± 0.603.05 ± 0.610.698
3rd3.02 ± 0.793.49 ± 0.430.029
4th3.23 ± 0.483.20 ± 0.460.836
Chiropody course year1st3.38 ± 0.603.44 ± 0.380.601
2nd3.25 ± 0.553.44 ± 0.500.122
3rd3.26 ± 0.633.23 ± 0.540.826
4th3.29 ± 0.503.35 ± 0.700.692
Table
Table 5. Distribution of Q1 and Q2 scores for the General Attitude dimension of the ACVECS questionnaire with respect to gender, current degree, and course year for each degree and as a whole for all degrees taken together.
Table 5. Distribution of Q1 and Q2 scores for the General Attitude dimension of the ACVECS questionnaire with respect to gender, current degree, and course year for each degree and as a whole for all degrees taken together.
VariablesCategoriesGeneral Attitude Q1
Mean ± SD		General Attitude Q2
Mean ± SD		p Value
SexMale3.19 ± 0.493.35 ± 0.500.003
Female3.30 ± 0.453.43 ± 0.41p < 0.0001
DegreeNursing3.34 ± 0.413.47 ± 0.39p < 0.0001
Physiotherapy3.11 ± 0.523.25 ± 0.500.026
Chiropody3.20 ± 0.523.28 ± 0.490.176
Course year for all degrees taken together1st3.25 ± 0.463.38 ± 0.39p < 0.0001
2nd3.26 ± 0.443.36 ± 0.470.021
3rd3.25 ± 0.493.46 ± 0.43p < 0.0001
4th3.35 ± 0.433.45 ± 0.440.035
Nursing course year1st3.27 ± 0.433.39 ± 0.370.005
2nd3.34 ± 0.383.42 ± 0.420.096
3rd3.33 ± 0.393.53 ± 0.38p < 0.0001
4th3.45 ± 0.393.50 ± 0.390.379
Physiotherapy course year1st3.14 ± 0.463.32 ± 0.480.085
2nd3.05 ± 0.493.03 ± 0.580.837
3rd2.94 ± 0.663.47 ± 0.330.003
4th3.25 ± 0.433.21 ± 0.420.735
Chiropody course year1st3.22 ± 0.623.40 ± 0.360.130
2nd3.17 ± 0.483.38 ± 0.450.067
3rd3.22 ± 0.553.12 ± 0.510.413
4th3.18 ± 0.453.23 ± 0.600.752
Table
Table 6. Frequencies and percentages of students showing positive and negative scores on the 24 items of the ACVECS questionnaire.
Table 6. Frequencies and percentages of students showing positive and negative scores on the 24 items of the ACVECS questionnaire.
Questionnaire ItemsSURVEYDisagree
n (%)		ND/NA
n (%)		Agreed
n (%)		p Value
1. I have doubts about the effectiveness of vaccines Q1750 (80.3)80 (8.6)104 (11.1)0.261
Q2797 (83.0)76 (7.9)87 (9.1)
2. I would rather have influenza than be vaccinated against it Q1703 (75.3)135 (14.5)96 (10.3)p < 0.001
Q2814 (84.8)90 (9.4)56 (5.8)
3. I am convinced that marketed vaccines are safe Q173 (7.8)151 (16.2)710 (76.0)p < 0.001
Q249 (5.1)100 (10.4)811 (84.5)
4. I am interested in learning more about vaccination Q171 (7.6)198 (21.2)665 (71.2)0.693
Q266 (6.9)216 (22.5)678 (70.6)
5. I believe it important to check my vaccination status before travelling to a tropical country such as Mexico or Thailand Q17 (0.7)23 (2.5)904 (96.8)0.192
Q29 (0.9)13 (1.4)938 (97.7)
6. National and international vaccine campaigns are cost-effective Q1146 (15.6)300 (32.1)488 (52.2)p < 0.001
Q2120 (12.5)221 (23.0)619 (64.5)
7. It is not worth being vaccinated against a disease for which effective treatment exists Q1786 (84.2)92 (9.9)56 (6.0)p < 0.001
Q2868 (90.4)66 (6.9)26 (2.7)
8. Vaccinating the adult population is not important Q1882 (94.4)22 (2.4)30 (3.2)0.001
Q2939 (97.8)7 (0.7)14 (1.5)
9. Health science students are ethically obliged to be vaccinated against influenza Q1146 (15.6)217(23.2)571 (61.1)0.002
Q2107 (11.1)199 (20.7)654 (68.1)
10. Being vaccinated myself has a positive influence on the behaviour of my patients Q151 (5.5)169 (18.1)714 (76.4)p < 0.001
Q229 (3.0)81 (8.4)850 (88.5)
11. Students should be vaccinated to reduce the transmission of infectious diseases in hospitals Q122 (2.4)55 (5.9)857 (91.8)p < 0.001
Q211 (1.1)26 (2.7)923 (96.1)
12. I should review my vaccination status before starting clinical training Q128 (3.0)112 (12.0)794 (85.0)0.132
Q236 (3.8)141 (14.7)783 (81.6)
13. I should be vaccinated against influenza every year, even it means missing hours of practical training Q1159 (17.0)228 (24.4)547 (58.6)p < 0.001
Q295 (9.9)187 (19.5)678 (70.6)
14. I would be vaccinated irrespective of what my peers might do Q125 (2.7)50 (5.4)859 (92.0)p < 0.001
Q215 (1.6)20 (2.1)925 (96.4)
15. If I am in good health there is no need to be vaccinated Q1750 (80.3)129 (13.8)55 (5.9)p < 0.001
Q2866 (90.2)52 (5.4)42 (4.4)
16. I would recommend my patients adhere to the established vaccination calendar Q18 (0.9)36 (3.9)890 (95.3)0.002
Q25 (0.5)13 (1.4)942 (98.1)
17. I would inform my patients of the effectiveness, indications and side effects of each vaccine Q16 (0.6)29 (3.1)899 (96.3)0.431
Q25 (0.5)21 (2.2)934 (97.3)
18. I would travel to a tropical country only after consulting Spain’s International Vaccination about the vaccines I requireQ135 (3.7)51 (5.5)848 (90.8)0.428
Q240 (4.2)65 (6.8)855 (89.1)
19. I would be vaccinated against HIV when a vaccine becomes available and when shown to be acceptably safe and effective Q132 (3.4)74 (7.9)828 (88.7)0.762
Q228 (2.9)72 (7.5)860 (89.6)
20. If being vaccinated against influenza were readily accessible to me, I would be vaccinated every year Q164 (6.9)120 (12.8)750 (80.3)0.007
Q249 (5.1)88 (9.2)823 (85.7)
21. I would be vaccinated against anything my doctor recommends, even if I have to pay for it Q187 (9.3)261 (27.9)586 (62.7)0.545
Q2101 (10.5)252 (26.3)607 (63.2)
22. When I begin work at a hospital, I will make sure I am vaccinated against everything preventableQ110 (1.1)56 (6.0)868 (92.9)0.022
Q210 (1.0)32 (3.3)918 (95.6)
23. I would only be vaccinated in exceptional circumstances (epidemics, health alerts, etc.Q1683 (73.1)139 (14.9)112 (12.0)p < 0.001
Q2826 (86.0)89 (9.3)45 (4.7)
24. I will be vaccinated against influenza every year I have clinical trainingQ1122 (13.1)229 (24.5)583 (62.4)p < 0.001
Q261 (6.4)175 (18.2)724 (75.4)
Table
Table 7. Multivariate analysis: relationships shown by the dimensions Beliefs, Behaviour and General Attitude with the variables sex, age, degree being pursued, and course year.
Table 7. Multivariate analysis: relationships shown by the dimensions Beliefs, Behaviour and General Attitude with the variables sex, age, degree being pursued, and course year.
Dependent VariableIndependent VariablesUnstandardised Coefficients
B (95%CI)		Standardised Coefficientsp Value
BeliefsConstant 2.938 (2.868–3.008) p < 0.001
Nursing0.193 (0.148–0.237)0.189p < 0.001
Survey: Q20.128 (0.087–0.169)0.137p < 0.001
Course Year 4th 0.103 (0.051–0.155)0.091p < 0.001
Course Year 3rd 0.069 (0.019–0.120)0.0630.007
BehaviourConstant3.059 (2.975–3.144) p < 0.001
Nursing0.173 (0.124–0.222)0.159p < 0.001
Q20.101 (0.057–0.145)0.101p < 0.001
Female gender0.098 (0.042–0.155)0.0780.001
General attitudeConstant2.974 (2.898–3.049) p < 0.001
Nursing0.183 (0.139–0.227)0.186p < 0.001
Q20.120 (0.081–0.160)0.134p < 0.001
Course Year 4th0.067 (0.019–0.115)0.061p < 0.001
Female gender0.058 (0.007–0.108)0.0500.026
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Pérez-Rivas, F.J.; Gallego-Lastra, R.D.; Marques-Vieira, C.M.A.; López-López, C.; Domínguez-Fernández, S.; Rico-Blázquez, M.; Ajejas Bazán, M.J. The Attitude towards Vaccination of Health Sciences Students at a Spanish University Improved over the First 18 Months of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Vaccines 2022, 10, 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10020237

AMA Style

Pérez-Rivas FJ, Gallego-Lastra RD, Marques-Vieira CMA, López-López C, Domínguez-Fernández S, Rico-Blázquez M, Ajejas Bazán MJ. The Attitude towards Vaccination of Health Sciences Students at a Spanish University Improved over the First 18 Months of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Vaccines. 2022; 10(2):237. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10020237

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pérez-Rivas, Francisco Javier, Ramón Del Gallego-Lastra, Cristina Maria Alves Marques-Vieira, Candelas López-López, Silvia Domínguez-Fernández, Milagros Rico-Blázquez, and María Julia Ajejas Bazán. 2022. "The Attitude towards Vaccination of Health Sciences Students at a Spanish University Improved over the First 18 Months of the COVID-19 Pandemic" Vaccines 10, no. 2: 237. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10020237

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop