Carotenoids of Capsicum Fruits: Pigment Profile and Health-Promoting Functional Attributes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Capsicum Species
3. Carotenoids of Capsicum Species
4. Biosynthesis of Carotenoids in Capsicum Species
5. Antioxidant Activities of Pepper’s Carotenoids
6. Health-Promoting Functional Attributes
6.1. Antidiabetic Potential
6.2. Antiadipogenic and Anti-Obesity
6.3. Skin Photoprotective
6.4. Macula Pigments
6.5. Antinociceptive/Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory
6.6. Antihyperlipidemic and Cardioprotective
6.7. Hepatoprotective
6.8. Chemopreventive
6.9. Provitamin A Activity
7. Safety of Capsicum and Its Carotenoids
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Species | Cultivar | Colour | Carotenoid Concentration | Reference | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | ||||
Red Mountain | Red | 31.8 ± 4.54 | 4.6 ± 0.71 | 2.73 ± 0.77 | 0.59 ± 0.16 | ND | 3.61 ± 0.44 | ND | ND | 43.32 ± 6.88 | ||
Magnifico | Red | 28.33 ± 2.83 | 4.48 ± 0.78 | 2.06 ± 0.06 | 0.4 ± 0.04 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 35.99 ± 3.51 | ||
Nagano | Red | 22.88 ± 1.65 | 4.01 ± 0.32 | 2.01 ± 0.05 | 0.31 ± 0.02 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 29.82 ± 2.01 | ||
aC. annuum | Preludium | Red | 29.56 ± 0.67 | 2.67 ± 0.09 | 1.94 ± 0.17 | 0.33 ± 0.02 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 35.05 ± 0.90 | [32] |
Adami Red | Red | 28.62 ± 0.99 | 2.59 ± 0.17 | 1.88 ± 0.18 | 0.32 ± 0.02 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 33.94 ± 1.38 | ||
Raon Red | Red | 13.26 ± 5.14 | 1.74 ± 0.82 | 0.83 ± 0.17 | 0.13 ± 0.07 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 13.51 ± 1.51 | ||
Red | Red | 21.55 ± 5.93 | 3.09 ± 0.97 | 1.13 ± 0.21 | 0.30 ± 0.09 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 29.11 ± 1.52 | ||
RD-Glory | Red | 3.98 ± 0.47 | 0.95 ± 0.09 | 0.86 ± 0.02 | 0.47 ± 0.24 | ND | 24.05 ± 0.16 | ND | ND | 37.25 ± 0.63 | ||
Mazzona | Orange | ND | ND | 1.23 ± 0.01 | 1.12 ± 0.04 | 28.39 ± 1.00 | 151.39 ± 4.85 | 6.19 ± 0.09 | 0.29 ± 0.00 | 190.43 ± 5.66 | ||
Orange Glory | Orange | ND | ND | 0.98 ± 0.09 | 1.09 ± 0.08 | 15.77 ± 1.52 | 145.92 ± 13.17 | 5.52 ± 2.00 | 0.26 ± 0.04 | 171.95 ± 17.13 | ||
Orange Star | Orange | ND | ND | 0.62 ± 0.05 | 0.64 ± 0.08 | 25.27 ± 3.21 | 140.05 ± 14.48 | 4.47 ± 1.59 | 0.22 ± 0.10 | 172.77 ± 19.71 | ||
aC. annuum | Raon Orange | Orange | ND | ND | 0.76 ± 0.01 | 0.55 ± 0.01 | 22.24 ± 0.51 | 88.80 ± 1.06 | 0.89 ± 0.07 | ND | 115.01 ± 1.46 | [32] |
Mini Goggal Orange | Orange | ND | ND | 0.63 ± 0.01 | 0.64 ± 0.01 | 17.32 ± 0.48 | 89.89 ± 2.89 | 1.87 ± 0.77 | ND | 111.83 ± 4.25 | ||
Orange | Orange | ND | ND | 0.75 ± 0.03 | 0.61 ± 0.01 | 25.10 ± 0.39 | 115.53 ± 1.11 | 3.06 ± 0.32 | ND | 146.93 ± 1.93 | ||
OE-Glory | Orange | ND | ND | 0.66 ± 0.16 | 0.48 ± 0.11 | 19.31 ± 4.00 | 85.06 ± 19.08 | 2.00 ± 0.49 | 0.28 ± 0.07 | 109.69 ± 24.32 | ||
Jorrit | Yellow | ND | ND | 0.15 ± 0.04 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 8.75 ± 2.29 | 0.66 ± 0.31 | 0.81 ± 0.25 | 0.14 ± 0.03 | 11.38 ± 3.14 | ||
Coletti | Yellow | ND | ND | 0.21 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.00 | 13.83 ± 0.94 | 0.71 ± 0.06 | 1.48 ± 0.06 | 0.72 ± 0.30 | 18.2 ± 1.46 | ||
Sven | Yellow | ND | ND | 0.15 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 13.16 ± 1.07 | 0.63 ± 0.04 | 1.06 ± 0.20 | 0.20 ± 0.01 | 16.21 ± 1.42 | ||
aC. annuum | Atalante | Yellow | ND | ND | 0.17 ± 0.00 | 0.03 ± 0.00 | 11.97 ± 0.56 | 0.45 ± 0.09 | ND | 1.05 ± 0.57 | 15.31 ± 1.37 | [32] |
Raon Yellow | Yellow | ND | ND | 0.30 ± 0.00 | 0.43 ± 0.04 | 21.08 ± 0.84 | 2.22 ± 0.18 | 1.35 ± 0.41 | 2.85 ± 1.34 | 29.70 ± 0.67 | ||
Yellow | Yellow | ND | ND | 0.29 ± 0.06 | 0.29 ± 0.00 | 18.32 ± 6.79 | 1.27 ± 0.08 | ND | 0.85 ± 0.09 | 22.32 ± 7.23 | ||
YW-Glory | Yellow | ND | ND | 0.27 ± 0.03 | 0.27 ± 0.07 | 15.17 ± 1.25 | 1.19 ± 0.52 | ND | 0.55 ± 0.21 | 18.45 ± 1.02 | ||
b,cC. annuum | Pimenta PMO | Red | NA | NA | b 4442.72 ± 1.0 | b111.12 ± 0.19 | b 195.75 ± 0.25 | b 460.03 ± 3.13 | NA | NA | c 1064.35 ± 19.38 | [44] |
Pimenta Amarela | Yellow | NA | NA | ND | ND | b 312.79 ± 0.12 | b 8.78 ± 0.03 | NA | NA | c91.26 ± 8.59 | ||
b,cC. baccatum var. umbilicatum | Pimenta Chumbinho Baião | Red | NA | NA | b 454.08 ± 0.20 | b 1456.24 ± 0.80 | b 139.85 ± 0.14 | b 1291.29 ± 0.40 | NA | NA | c 580.98 ± 51.91 | [44] |
Pimenta Biquinho | Orange | NA | NA | ND | ND | b 687.71 ± 0.66 | b 25.56 ± 0.02 | NA | NA | c 208.45 ± 12.65 | ||
b,cC. chinense | Pimenta Curuçazinho | Yellow | NA | NA | b 33.48 ± 1.06 | ND | b 89.91 ± 0.65 | b 355.68 ± 0.35 | NA | NA | c 73.80 ± 2.93 | [44] |
Pimenta Murupi | Yellow | NA | NA | ND | ND | b 262.96 ± 0.08 | b 20.81 ± 5.99 | NA | NA | c 79.56 ± 7.12 |
Functional Property | Type of Study | Biological/Pharmacological/ Clinical Activity | Species/Variety/ Cultivar | Extract/Fraction/ Carotenoid | Carotenoid Content/Purity | Dose | Effects/Identified Mechanism | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hypoglycaemic | In vitro | α-Amylase inhibitory | C. chinense cv. Habanero | Lipophilic hexane fraction from ethanol extract of immature (I) and mature (M) fruits. | 62.7 ± 5.5 (I) and 362 ± 7.8 (M) mg β-carotene eq./100 mg FW | IC50, 9.88 (I) and 29.58 (M) µg/mL | A selective α-amylase inhibitory activity. No α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. | [50] |
C. annuum var. acuminatum small | Lipophilic hexane fraction of ethanol extract from deseeded air-dried mature fruits. | Not determined | IC50, 6.9 µg/mL | A selective α-amylase inhibitory activity. Inactive as α-glucosidase inhibitor. | [79] | |||
C. annuum var. cerasiferum | Lipophilic hexane fraction of ethanol extract from deseeded air-dried mature fruits. | Not determined | IC50, 20.1 µg/mL | A selective α-amylase inhibitory activity. No α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. | [79] | |||
C. annuum var. acuminatum big | Lipophilic fraction of ethanol extract from deseeded air-dried immature fruits. | Not determined | IC50, 8.7 µg/mL | A selective α-amylase inhibitory activity. Inactive as α-glucosidase inhibitor. | [80] | |||
C. annuum cv. Fiesta, Acuminatum, Orange Thai and Cayenne Golden | Lipophilic hexane fraction of ethanol extract from deseeded air-dried immature (I) fruits. | Not determined | IC50, ranged from 9.1 to 28.6 µg/mL (I) | A selective α-amylase inhibitory activity, Fiesta > Cayenne Golden > Acuminatum > Orange Thai. No α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. | [81] | |||
Anti-obesity | In vitro | Antiadipogenic on murine 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes | Not determined | Capsanthin purified from commercialised red pepper powder. | Capsanthin, 100% | IC50, 2.5 ± 0.45 µM | The activities resulted from potent adrenoceptor-β2-agonistic which is linked to the activation of hormone sensitive lipase. | [83] |
Lipolytic in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes | ED50, 0.872 ± 0.06 µM | |||||||
In vivo | Inhibition of weight gain in high-fat-diet-induced obese female C57BL/6C mice | Not determined | Capsanthin purified from commercialised red pepper powder. | Capsanthin, 100% | 1, 5, and 10 µmol | A dose-dependent enhancement of locomotive activity associated with excessive production of ATP with progressive weight loss. | [83] | |
Skin photoprotective | In vitro | Anti UVB-induced cytotoxicity on normal human dermal fibroblasts | Not determined | Purified capsanthin, capsorubin and lutein from commercialised paprika oleoresin. | Capsanthin, 100% Capsorubin, 100% Lutein, 100% | 1 µM | Protective effects by producing significant decrease in the formation of UVB-induced DNA strand break and counteracting caspase-3 cleavage. | [85] |
Clinical | Anti-UV-induced skin damage in a double-blind placebo-controlled study (Japanese male and female, aged 30 to 50 years with skin phototype II). | Not determined | A commercial paprika-xanthophyll preparation (PapriX- oil). | 333 mg of PapriX-oil gelatine capsule (l 9 mg total xanthophylls, 5 mg capsanthin, and 0.5 mg cryptoxanthin) | One capsule orally with a meal every evening for 5 weeks. | Suppression of UV-induced erythema and pigmentation by the xanthophylls’ strong singlet oxygen quenching activity that counteracted UV-induced photooxidative stress and acute inflammation response. | [86] | |
Anti-Inflammatory | In vitro | Anti-inflammatory in obesity-induced inflammation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes co-cultured with RAW264.7 macrophages. | Not determined | Purified paprika pigments from commercialised paprika carotenoids. | Capsanthin, 44.3% Capsorubin, 12.8% Capsanthin analog | 15, 30, 60 µg/mL | Attenuation of inflammation in the 3T3-L1 adipocytes by dose dependant suppression of adipocytokine mRNA gene expression for IL-6, TNF-α, MCP-1 and resistin, and significant (p < 0.05) deceased versus control in nitric oxide release. | [82] |
In vivo | Anti-inflammatory in carrageenan-induced mice paw oedema. | C. annuum var. guajillo (Guajilo 15660) | Petroleum ether fraction of acetone extract from dried fruits. | β-carotene, 10.01% β-cryptoxanthin, 11.96% Violaxanthin, 49.06% | 5, 20 and 80 mg/kg | Significant (p < 0.05) reduction of oedema at 5 hr time point, comparable to indomethacine (7 mg/kg) | [3] | |
Anti-inflammatory in adjuvant-induced mice paw oedema. | C. annuum (Ukrainian cayenne bitter pepper) | Petroleum ether fraction of acetone extract from air-dried fruits. | Carotenoid extract containing 69.3% yellow and 30.7% red fractions rich in capsanthin, lutein and β-carotene. | Topical application of ointment containing 2 mg extract/g daily for 20 days. | Reduction of serum cholinesterase activity by 1.3 times and double decrease in the serum seromucoid concentration that indicated good inhibitory activity. | [87] | ||
Anti-Hyperlipidemic | In vivo | Inhibition of CETP activity and anti-atherosclerotic in cholesterol-fed male New Zealand white rabbits. | Not determined | Mixture of red pepper powder, Purina lab Chow (Purina Chemical, Korea) and 1% cholesterol. | Red pepper powder, 1% | 100 g supplement/day for 12 weeks | Significant (p < 0.05) lowered in total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL-C, VLDL-C, and VLDL-TG levels, atherogenic index and CETP activity whereas higher HDL-C level than in the control group during the experimental period. | [88] |
Promotion of plasma LDL-C levels and hepatic gene expression in young male Wistar rats. | Not determined | Purified capsanthin from non-acylated capsanthin powder. | Capsanthin, 100% | 0·25 and 0·49 mmol/kg diet ad libitum for 2 weeks | A dose-dependent increment of HDL-C associated with up-regulation of mRNA for apoA5 and LCAT. | [89] | ||
Hepatoprotective | In vivo | Liver protectant against paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity in male albino Wistar rats. | C. annuum | Ethanol extract of dried red fruit powder. | Lycopene, 4.69 ± 0.01 mg/g tissue | 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight | Improvement of liver functions as indicated by significant decreased in liver weight and lipid levels while increased in glycogen and glycoprotein in liver tissue as well as decreased in serum liver markers (AST, ALT ALP) and bilirubin, (p < 0.001) versus untreated rats. | [90] |
Chemopreventive | In vitro | Protective activity against H2O2-induced inhibition of GJIC in WB-F344 rat liver epithelial cells. | C. annuum | Diethyl ether fraction of the red fruits (RPE), capsanthin (CST) and β-carotene (BCT). | RPE CST, 100% BCT, 100% | RPE, 10 and 25 µg/mL CST, 0.5 and 1.0 µM BCT, 0.1 and 0.5 µM | RPE, CST and BCT prevented GJIC inhibition by blocking the generation and actions of ROS and enhancing Cx43 mRNA expression, protein levels and the activity of ERK1/2, p38 and JNK MAP kinases. | [91] |
MDR-efflux protein inhibitory in human MDR-1 gene-transfected L1210 mouse lymphoma cells and human breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231 (HTB-26). | C. annuum | Purified capsanthin and capsorubin from red paprika. | Capsanthin, 100% Capsorubin, 100% | 4 µg/mL | Capsanthin and capsorubin enhanced rhodamine 123 accumulation 30-fold relative to nontreated lymphoma cells that suggested their MDR reversal effect on the cells. | [92] | ||
Apoptosis induction in human breast cancer cells MDA- MB-231 (HTB-26). | C. annuum | Purified capsanthin from red paprika. | Capsanthin, 100% | 2 µg/mL | Capsanthin induced apoptosis in both tumour cells comparable to that of the positive control, M627 (50 µg/mL). | [92] |
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Mohd Hassan, N.; Yusof, N.A.; Yahaya, A.F.; Mohd Rozali, N.N.; Othman, R. Carotenoids of Capsicum Fruits: Pigment Profile and Health-Promoting Functional Attributes. Antioxidants 2019, 8, 469. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8100469
Mohd Hassan N, Yusof NA, Yahaya AF, Mohd Rozali NN, Othman R. Carotenoids of Capsicum Fruits: Pigment Profile and Health-Promoting Functional Attributes. Antioxidants. 2019; 8(10):469. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8100469
Chicago/Turabian StyleMohd Hassan, Norazian, Nurul Asyiqin Yusof, Amirah Fareeza Yahaya, Nurul Nasyitah Mohd Rozali, and Rashidi Othman. 2019. "Carotenoids of Capsicum Fruits: Pigment Profile and Health-Promoting Functional Attributes" Antioxidants 8, no. 10: 469. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8100469