1. Introduction
Uric acid accounts for more than half of the antioxidative properties in humans [
1,
2,
3,
4]. However, elevated serum uric acid concentrations (SUA) or hyperuricemia is considered a risk factor for the development of oxidative stress and/or inflammation-related diseases such as gout, hypertension, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) [
1]. Uric acid has a paradoxical role in human metabolism: on one hand, it acts as an antioxidant in hydrophilic environment, whereas on the other hand, it can propagate a chain reaction and cause oxidative damage to cells in reaction with other radicals [
1]. However, the role of SUA in CVD remains controversial with conflicting information being put forward regarding the link between SUA and CVD [
5,
6,
7].
Plant polyphenols have been shown to be protective against diseases such as certain cancers, CVD, diabetes, and aging [
8,
9,
10]. Blueberries contain anthocyanins, which are recognized to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Human and animal studies have shown beneficial effects of blueberry consumption on lifestyle-related chronic diseases [
11]. Studies have been conducted to understand the effect of polyphenol and anthocyanins containing foods on circulating uric acid concentrations. On the one hand, red wine has been shown to acutely increase plasma urate concentrations [
12], whereas, on the other hand, dealcoholized red wine has been shown to decrease plasma uric acid concentrations [
13]. Similarly, cherry consumption has been shown to reduce SUA concentrations whereas acaiberry had no effects on them [
14,
15]. Although, to the best of our knowledge, blueberries have not been tested for their effects on SUA and no scientific evidence links them so far, they are thought to be functional foods for curing gout, an inflammatory arthritic disease caused by hyperuricemia, mainly for their anthocyanin content or antioxidant property.
The role of berry fruits in improving cardiovascular health is gaining importance [
8]. Studies have shown beneficial effects of flavonoids and anthocyanins on endothelial function, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension. A study in 93,600 young to middle-aged women from the Nurses Health Study (NHS) II showed that high intake of anthocyanins can help reduce risk for myocardial infarction [
16]. Another study from the same group also showed that anthocyanins and specific flavones can prevent hypertension [
17] and decrease the risk for type 2 diabetes [
18]. In a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial, blueberry consumption was associated with improvement in endothelial function, but not in blood pressure, in 44 adult men [
19]. In contrast, in another double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial, blueberries were found to decrease blood pressure and arterial stiffness in 8 weeks in postmenopausal women [
20]. Additionally, a dose and time-dependent improvement was observed in vascular function following blueberry consumption in men participating in a double-blind, crossover intervention study [
21]. However, very few studies have investigated the effect of blueberry consumption on SUA concentration or its relationship with CVD risk factors. A literature review revealed only one study which was conducted in 15 healthy adults that did not find any significant differences in SUA in individuals with high, low, or no dose blueberries [
22].
Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the impact of blueberries on SUA concentrations and their relation to CVD risk factors in older adults. Our central hypothesis is that the blueberries, when added to the diet, will enhance the body’s antioxidant status, lower SUA concentrations, and improve related CVD risk factors.
2. Research Design and Methods
2.1. Study Population
In the context of a larger study that was designed to assess the effects of blueberries on cognitive abilities, adults aged 65 to 80 years, who were beginning to experience mild cognitive decline, but were generally healthy, were enrolled in a 6-month double-blind randomized clinical trial across a 3-year rolling enrollment. Inclusion criteria included those who consumed fewer than five daily servings of fruits and vegetables; were not diagnosed with dementia or Alzheimer’s disease, central nervous system disorders, psychiatric disorders, gastrointestinal issues, digestive issues, or diabetes; had a body mass index (BMI) less than 34.9 lbs./in2; were not taking certain medicines (e.g., medications with known cognitive side-effects); and were right-handed. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and all participants gave written and verbal informed consent (11-2075).
Intervention participants were randomly assigned to either the blueberry or placebo group (
Figure 1). Participants were age-matched in half-decade categories (65–69, 70–74, and 75–79 years old). Single-year-crop wild blueberries donated by the Wild Blueberry Association of North America (Old Town, ME, USA) were freeze-dried and pulverized into a powder at Futureceuticals, Inc. (Momence, IL, USA) and packaged in 17.5 g packets at WePackItAll (Irwindale, CA, USA). The placebo powder was created by Futureceuticals from a recipe developed by the High Bush Blueberry Council and was also packaged at WePackItAll. The packaging was blank with the exception of one of four letters (C, D, E, or F), which constituted the blind. Powders were analyzed for nutrient content and antioxidant activity by Medallion Labs (Minneapolis, MN, USA) at least semi-annually during the study to insure the powders maintained consistency over time (see
Table 1 for nutrient composition).
Participants were instructed to consume two packets of powder (35 g)—which for the blueberries was the equivalent of two cups of fresh blueberries—daily for 180 days. Participants were further instructed that the powders were not to be heated, cooked, or added to already hot foods; it was also recommended that they not mix the powder with dairy products [
23,
24]. Participants recorded powder consumption times and details in a provided food diary. Any packets not consumed were returned to researchers; compliance was calculated from returned packets.
Participants were interviewed about the foods listed in their diary using a 3-pass diet recall system. Data were collected in a standardized format with the aid of food models for accurate portion determination utilizing the Nutrition Data System for Research (NDSR) software (Minneapolis, MN, USA). The NDSR software calculates average daily caloric and nutrient intake.
2.2. Uric Acid
Twelve-hour fasted blood was obtained from participants at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months. Blood was collected by a trained phlebotomist through blood draw using ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) coated tubes and serum tubes. Blood was centrifuged for 15 min at 1500g at 4 °C; layers were aliquoted into separate tubes and immediately stored at −80 °C. The blood was processed by Carolinas Medical Center LabCorp (Charlotte, NC, USA); the blood was assayed for creatinine, glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.
2.3. Physical Examination
Anthropometrics and blood pressure were collected from participants at each session by trained research assistants. After participants sat quietly for five min with both feet on the floor, blood pressure was measured using an Omron HEM-907XL digital blood pressure monitor. Waist circumference was measured 1 inch above the navel using a soft tape measure. Participants’ weights and heights were measured without shoes and after emptying pockets and removing excess clothing. The Cardinal Detecto Pro Doc Series digital physician scale was used to measure weight. Height was measured to the nearest quarter inch using a Charder portable stadiometer situated against the wall.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
All statistical analyses were computed using STATA, version 14.0 (StataCorp LP, College Station, TX, USA). A test of normality was performed and the variables showing skewed distribution were log transformed to meet the normal distribution. t-tests and ANOVA were used to analyze group and sex differences. Pearson correlation tests and multiple linear regression analyses were used to assess the relationship between SUA concentrations and CVD risk factors. A value of <0.05 (two-tailed) was considered to be statistically significant after adjustment for multiple tests.
4. Discussion
In the present study, we investigated the effects of blueberry consumption on SUA levels and its relationship with CVD risk factors in older adults. Uric acid, a major antioxidant in humans, can also act as pro-oxidant and increase the risk for major chronic diseases such as hypertension, type 2 diabetes, CVD, and CKD thus has contradictory effects on metabolism. Elevated SUA concentrations have been associated with increased risk for all-cause and CVD mortality [
25]. A number of studies have investigated the role of uric acid in the development of CVD, however, very limited studies have been conducted in older adults. Moreover, no studies have investigated the effect of nutritional intervention (blueberry) on SUA concentrations in older individuals. Considering that both have anti-oxidative properties, it is important that we understand the effect of blueberry supplementation on SUA concentrations.
Our results show that, at baseline, men had significantly higher levels of SUA than women. Significant differences have been observed in the levels of SUA concentrations in men and women. Several studies have reported higher levels of SUA in men as compared to women [
26,
27,
28,
29,
30,
31,
32,
33], which is similar to our results. Similarly, sex-specific differences have also been reported with respect to association of SUA with CVD risk factors. Chou et al. [
34] conducted a stratified analysis and found association of SUA with insulin resistance and plasma glucose levels in women but not in men. Previous studies from our group and others have shown a positive association between SUA and waist circumference [
27,
28,
32,
34]. In the current study, we found a strong correlation between SUA and waist circumference at baseline, mainly in women.
Many studies have observed the association between CVD risk factors and SUA concentrations to be stronger in women than men [
32,
33,
35]. We also observed strong correlations of baseline SUA with serum triglycerides. This, again, is a replication of observations reported by several studies [
32,
35,
36,
37]. A retrospective analysis of the database from the Laboratory Information System—a database of data from a cohort of outpatient adults referred by general practitioners for routine medical check-ups for three years from 2005–2008—showed that triglycerides were significantly associated with circulating uric acid in women but not in men [
35]. Similarly, a study conducted in elderly adults reported that high SUA levels predicted metabolic syndrome in older women but not men [
31]. In our study, we observed a similar pattern of associations. Changes in SUA between baseline and the 6-month time-period were significantly associated with CVD risk factors (glucose and triglycerides) in men but not women. Changes in SUA regardless of treatment group also showed sex-specific differences in associations between SUA and CVD risk factors. Thus, our study replicates and confirms that the association of baseline SUA and changes in SUA are significantly associated with some CVD risk factors in a sex-specific manner.
As a next step, we investigated whether blueberry consumption affected SUA concentrations. We found that SUA concentrations initially decreased regardless of sex differences. However, after the 3-month time point, sex-specific differences became apparent. Significant differences between placebo and blueberry groups between 3 and 6 months were found only in men and not in women. Likewise, changes in SUA concentration were significantly associated with diastolic blood pressure, and serum levels of triglycerides and HDL cholesterol only in women but not men in the blueberry group. No significant associations or sex-specific differences were observed in the placebo group. However, the sex-specific differences in changes in SUA between and within groups are noteworthy. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to focus on the effects of blueberry on SUA concentrations over a 6-month long period. There is only one other study [
22] in which scientists investigated the effects of high and low dose of blueberries on measures of antioxidant status and included SUA as one of the measures. However, this study measured only the acute effects (fasting, 1, 2, and 3 h after sample consumption) and did not find any significant differences in SUA concentrations. We, on the other hand, investigated the long-term effects of blueberry consumption. We also found association of blueberry compliance with SUA concentrations where increasing compliance was associated with deceasing SUA in women.
Our study has some limitations. Most importantly, our sample size may be too small to detect a significant effect: the study was not powered for a sex split. Despite the small size, we were able to find a significant association between changes in SUA, consumption of blueberries, and CVD risk factors. Now that the evidence for sex differences is clear, future studies should include sufficient numbers of participants to analyze by sex. In addition, eleven participants dropped out because of issues with the study powders. Thus, the results are only generalizable to those who can tolerate a diet with added berries and sugars. Finally, we didn’t have measures of individual markers of anti-oxidant status, and as a result, we could not evaluate the direct effect of blueberry consumption on anti-oxidant status.