The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Coping with Subjective Cognitive Complaints: An Exploratory Study of People with Parkinson’s Disease (PwPD)
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Assessment
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Subjective Cognitive Complaints
3.2. Gender Differences
3.3. Cognitive Reserve
4. Discussion and Conclusions
4.1. Subjective Cognitive Complaints
4.2. Gender Differences
4.3. The Role of Cognitive Reserve
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
PD | Parkinson’s disease |
PwPD | People with Parkinson’s disease |
LEDD | Levodopa equivalent daily dose |
DAED | Dopamine agonist equivalent daily dose |
References
- Weintraub, D.; Tröster, A.I.; Marras, C.; Stebbins, G. Initial cognitive changes in Parkinson’s disease. Mov. Disord. 2018, 33, 511–519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aarsland, D.; Andersen, K.; Larsen, J.P.; Lolk, A. Prevalence and characteristics of dementia in Parkinson disease: An 8-year prospective study. Arch. Neurol. 2003, 60, 387–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wallace, E.R.; Segerstrom, S.C.; van Horne, C.G.; Schmitt, F.A.; Koehl, L.M. Meta-Analysis of Cognition in Parkinson’s Disease Mild Cognitive Impairment and Dementia Progression. Neuropsychol. Rev. 2022, 32, 149–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gonzalez-Latapi, P.; Bayram, E.; Litvan, I.; Marras, C. Cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease: Epidemiology, clinical profile, protective and risk factors. Behav. Sci. 2021, 11, 74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nagy, A.; Schrag, A. Neuropsychiatric aspects of Parkinson’s disease. J. Neural Transm. 2019, 126, 889–896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marioni, R.E.; Valenzuela, M.J.; van den Hout, A.; Brayne, C.; Matthews, F.E. MRC Cognitive Function and Ageing Study. Active cognitive lifestyle is associated with positive cognitive health transitions and compression of morbidity from age sixty-five. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e50940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lo Buono, V.; Palmeri, R.; De Salvo, S.; Berenati, M.; Greco, A.; Ciurleo, R.; Sorbera, C.; Cimino, V.; Corallo, F.; Bramanti, P.; et al. Anxiety, depression, and quality of life in Parkinson’s disease: The implications of multidisciplinary treatment. Neural Regen. Res. 2021, 16, 587–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [PubMed Central]
- Zhu, J.; Cui, Y.; Zhang, J.; Yan, R.; Su, D.; Zhao, D.; Wang, A.; Feng, T. Temporal trends in the prevalence of Parkinson’s disease from 1980 to 2023: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Healthy Longev. 2024, 5, e464–e479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cicero, C.E.; Scondotto, S.; Allotta, A.V.; De Luca, G.; Murolo, G.; Nicoletti, A.; Zappia, M. Burden of Parkinson’s disease in Sicily: A health administrative database study. Neurol. Sci. 2022, 43, 1043–1046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valeikiene, V.; Ceremnych, J.; Mieliauskaite, D.; Alekna, V. The prevalence of Parkinson’s disease among Vilnius inhabitants. Cent. Eur. J. Med. 2008, 3, 195–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valent, F.; Devigili, G.; Rinaldo, S.; Del Zotto, S.; Tullio, A.; Eleopra, R. The epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease in the Italian region Friuli Venezia Giulia: A population-based study with administrative data. Neurol. Sci. 2018, 39, 699–704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Su, D.; Cui, Y.; He, C.; Yin, P.; Bai, R.; Zhu, J.; Lam, J.S.T.; Zhang, J.; Yan, R.; Zheng, X.; et al. Projections for prevalence of Parkinson’s disease and its driving factors in 195 countries and territories to 2050: Modelling study of Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. BMJ 2025, 388, e080952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Khammash, N.; Al-Jabri, N.; Albishi, A.; Al-Onazi, A.; Aseeri, S.; Alotaibi, F.; Almazroua, Y.; Albloushi, M. Quality of Life in Patients With Parkinson’s Disease: A Cross-Sectional Study. Cureus 2023, 15, e33989. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [PubMed Central]
- Lehrner, J.; Moser, D.; Klug, S.; Gleiß, A.; Auff, E.; Pirker, W.; Pusswald, G. Subjective memory complaints, depressive symptoms and cognition in Parkinson’s disease patients. Eur. J. Neurol. 2014, 21, 1276–1277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Purri, R.; Brennan, L.; Rick, J.; Xie, S.X.; Deck, B.L.; Chahine, L.M.; Dahodwala, N.; Chen-Plotkin, A.; Duda, J.E.; Morley, J.F.; et al. Subjective Cognitive Complaint in Parkinson’s Disease Patients With Normal Cognition: Canary in the Coal Mine? Mov. Disord. 2020, 35, 1618–1625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barbosa, R.P.; Mendonça, M.D.; Caetano, A.P.; Lampreia, T.M.; Miguel, R.; Bugalho, P.M. Cognitive complaints in Parkinson’s disease patients: From subjective cognitive complaints to dementia and affective disorders. J. Neural Transm. 2019, 126, 1329–1335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hong, J.Y.; Lee, P.H. Subjective Cognitive Complaints in Cognitively Normal Patients With Parkinson’s Disease: A Systematic Review. J. Mov. Disord. 2023, 16, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stern, Y. What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2002, 8, 448–460. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Jones, R.N.; Manly, J.; Glymour, M.M.; Rentz, D.M.; Jefferson, A.L.; Stern, Y. Conceptual and measurement challenges in research on cognitive reserve. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2011, 17, 593–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ciccarelli, N.; Colombo, B.; Pepe, F.; Magni, E.; Antonietti, A.; Silveri, M.C. Cognitive reserve: A multidimensional protective factor in Parkinson’s disease related cognitive impairment. Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 2022, 29, 687–702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muslimovic, D.; Schmand, B.; Speelman, J.D.; de Haan, R.J. Course of cognitive decline in Parkinson’s disease: A meta-analysis. J. Int. Neuropsychol Soc. 2007, 13, 920–932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hindle, J.V.; Martyr, A.; Clare, L. Cognitive reserve in Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Park. Relat Disord. 2014, 20, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poletti, M.; Emre, M.; Bonuccelli, U. Mild cognitive impairment and cognitive reserve in Parkinson’s disease. Park. Relat. Disord. 2011, 17, 579–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hindle, J.V.; Martin-Forbes, P.A.; Bastable, A.J.; Pye, K.L.; Martyr, A.; Whitaker, C.J.; Craik, F.I.; Bialystok, E.; Thomas, E.M.; Mueller Gathercole, V.C.; et al. Cognitive reserve in Parkinson’s disease: The effects of welsh-english bilingualism on executive function. Park. Dis. 2015, 2015, 943572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hindle, J.V.; Hurt, C.S.; Burn, D.J.; Brown, R.G.; Samuel, M.; Wilson, K.C.; Clare, L. The effects of cognitive reserve and lifestyle on cognition and dementia in Parkinson’s disease-a longitudinal cohort study. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2016, 31, 13–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ophey, A.; Wirtz, K.; Wolfsgruber, S.; Balzer-Geldsetzer, M.; Berg, D.; Hilker-Roggendorf, R.; Kassubek, J.; Liepelt-Scarfone, I.; Becker, S.; Mollenhauer, B.; et al. Mid- and late-life lifestyle activities as main drivers of general and domain-specific cognitive reserve in individuals with Parkinson’s disease: Cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence from the LANDSCAPE study. J. Neurol. 2024, 271, 5411–5424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leach, L.S.; Christensen, H.; Mackinnon, A.J.; Windsor, T.D.; Butterworth, P. Gender differences in depression and anxiety across the adult lifespan: The role of psychosocial mediators. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2008, 43, 983–998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McLean, C.P.; Anderson, E.R. Brave men and timid women? A review of the gender differences in fear and anxiety. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2009, 29, 496–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farhane-Medina, N.Z.; Luque, B.; Tabernero, C.; Castillo-Mayén, R. Factors associated with gender and sex differences in anxiety prevalence and comorbidity: A systematic review. Sci. Prog. 2022, 105, 00368504221135469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Höglund, P.; Hakelind, C.; Nordin, S. Severity and prevalence of various types of mental ill-health in a general adult population: Age and sex differences. BMC Psychiatry 2020, 20, 209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Medical Association. World medical association declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA 2013, 310, 2191–2194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Litvan, I.; Goldman, J.G.; Tröster, A.I.; Schmand, B.A.; Weintraub, D.; Petersen, R.C.; Mollenhauer, B.; Adler, C.H.; Marder, K.; Williams-Gray, C.H.; et al. Diagnostic criteria for mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease: Movement disorder society task force guidelines. Mov. Disord. 2012, 27, 349–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garon, M.; Weis, L.; Siquier, A.; Fiorenzato, E.; Pistonesi, F.; Cianci, V.; Canesi, M.; Pesce, F.; Reali, E.; Pozzi, B.; et al. Validation of the Italian version of the Parkinson’s Disease-Cognitive Functional Rating Scale. J. Neural Transm. 2024, 131, 305–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peto, V.; Jenkinson, C.; Fitzpatrick, R. PDQ-39: A review of the development, validation and application of a Parkinson’s disease quality of life questionnaire and its associated measures. J. Neurol. 1998, 245 (Suppl. S1), S10–S14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Carpinelli Mazzi, M.; Iavarone, A.; Russo, G.; Musella, C.; Milan, G.; D’Anna, F.; Garofalo, E.; Chieffi, S.; Sannino, M.; Illario, M.; et al. Mini-Mental State Examination: New normative values on subjects in Southern Italy. Aging Clin. Exp. Res. 2020, 32, 699–702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nasreddine, Z.S.; Phillips, N.A.; Bédirian, V.; Charbonneau, S.; Whitehead, V.; Collin, I.; Cummings, J.L.; Chertkow, H. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2005, 53, 695–699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santangelo, G.; Falco, F.; D’Iorio, A.; Cuoco, S.; Raimo, S.; Amboni, M.; Pellecchia, M.T.; Longo, K.; Vitale, C.; Barone, P. Anxiety in early Parkinson’s disease: Validation of the Italian observer-rated version of the Parkinson Anxiety Scale (OR-PAS). J. Neurol. Sci. 2016, 367, 158–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spielberger, C.; Gorsuch, D.L.; Lushene, R.E. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; Consulting Psychologists’ Press: San Francisco, CA, USA, 1983. [Google Scholar]
- Starkstein, S.E.; Mayberg, H.S.; Preziosi, T.J.; Andrezejewski, P.; Leiguarda, R.; Robinson, R.G. Reliability, validity, and clinical correlates of apathy in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 1992, 4, 134–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beck, A.T.; Steer, R.A.; Brown, G.K. BDI-II: Beck Depression Inventory; Pearson: London, UK, 1996. [Google Scholar]
- Fossati, A.; Di Ceglie, A.; Acquarini, E.; Barratt, E.S. Psychometric properties of an Italian version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11) in nonclinical subjects. J. Clin. Psychol. 2001, 57, 815–828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maggi, G.; Vitale, C.; Giacobbe, C.; Barone, A.; Mastromarino, C.; Iannotta, F.; Amboni, M.; Weintraub, D.; Santangelo, G. Validation of the Italian version of the Questionnaire for Impulsive-Compulsive Disorders in Parkinson’s Disease-Rating Scale (QUIP-RS) in an Italian Parkinson’s disease cohort. Neurol. Sci. 2024, 45, 3153–3161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [PubMed Central]
- Siciliano, M.; Tessitore, A.; Morgante, F.; Goldman, J.G.; Ricciardi, L. Subjective Cognitive Complaints in Parkinson’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mov. Disord. 2024, 39, 17–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- van Balkom, T.D.; Berendse, H.W.; van der Werf, Y.D.; Twisk, J.W.R.; Peeters, C.F.W.; Hoogendoorn, A.W.; Hagen, R.H.; Berk, T.; van den Heuvel, O.A.; Vriend, C. Effect of eight-week online cognitive training in Parkinson’s disease: A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Park. Relat. Disord. 2022, 96, 80–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Han, L.L.; Wang, L.; Xu, Z.H.; Liang, X.N.; Zhang, M.W.; Fan, Y.; Sun, Y.M.; Liu, F.T.; Yu, W.B.; Tang, Y.L. Disease progression in Parkinson’s disease patients with subjective cognitive complaint. Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol. 2021, 8, 2096–2104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Erro, R.; Santangelo, G.; Barone, P.; Picillo, M.; Amboni, M.; Longo, K.; Giordano, F.; Moccia, M.; Allocca, R.; Pellecchia, M.T.; et al. Do subjective memory complaints herald the onset of mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson disease? J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol. 2014, 27, 276–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maas, B.R.; Göttgens, I.; Tijsse Klasen, H.P.; Kapelle, W.M.; Radder, D.L.; Bloem, B.R.; Darweesh, S.K. Age and gender differences in non-motor symptoms in people with Parkinson’s disease. Front. Neurol. 2024, 15, 1339716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dalrymple, W.A.; Trach, S.K.; Flanigan, J.L.; Patrie, J.T.; Henry, K.; Harrison, M.B.; Barrett, M.J.; Figari-Jordan, R.; Shah, B.B.; Rossetti, M.A. Psychiatric predictors of quality of life in Parkinson’s disease: A three-year longitudinal study. J. Neurol. Sci. 2024, 466, 123248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, S.; Janicki-Deverts, D.; Turner, R.B.; Doyle, W.J. Does hugging provide stress-buffering social support? A study of susceptibility to upper respiratory infection and illness. Psychol. Sci. 2015, 26, 135–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geerlings, A.D.; Kapelle, W.M.; Sederel, C.J.; Tenison, E.; Wijngaards-Berenbroek, H.; Meinders, M.J.; Munneke, M.; Ben-Shlomo, Y.; Bloem, B.R.; Darweesh, S.K.L. Caregiver burden in Parkinson’s disease: A mixed-methods study. BMC Med. 2023, 21, 247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bernatzky, G.; Presch, M.; Anderson, M.; Panksepp, J. Emotional foundations of music as a non-pharmacological pain management tool in modern medicine. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35, 1989–1999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kwok, J.Y.Y.; Kwan, J.C.Y.; Auyeung, M.; Mok, V.C.T.; Lau, C.K.Y.; Choi, K.C.; Chan, H.Y.L. Effects of Mindfulness Yoga vs Stretching and Resistance Training Exercises on Anxiety and Depression for People With Parkinson’s Disease: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Neurol. 2019, 76, 755–763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharp, K.; Hewitt, J.; Sharp, K.; Hewitt, J. Dance as an intervention for people with Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2014, 47, 445–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
PD-SCC− N = 52 | PD-SCC+ N = 81 | df | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD)/ N(%) | Mean (SD)/ N(%) | |||
Gender (male) | 25.6% | 37.6% | 131 | 0.673 |
Age at visit | 59.06 (7.04) | 61.06 (6.62) | 131 | 0.099 |
Disease duration at visit | 8.27 (5.28) | 9.44 (5.60) | 130 | 0.235 |
Age of onset | 50.10 (7.92) | 50.98 (8.83) | 130 | 0.564 |
ADL | 5.92 (0.27) | 5.63 (0.71) | 131 | 0.005 |
IADL | 5.92 (1.40) | 5.90 (1.49) | 130 | 0.929 |
QRC early life | 6.73 (2.11) | 6.22 (2.59) | 131 | 0.238 |
QRC middle life | 6.25 (1.83) | 6.19 (2.04) | 131 | 0.853 |
QRC late life | 8.79 (0.91) | 8.56 (1.51) | 129 | 0.323 |
QRC total score | 21.77 (3.97) | 20.87 (4.77) | 129 | 0.264 |
PD-SCC− | PD-SCC+ | df | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Mean (SD) | |||
PDQ8 | 4.85 (4.32) | 8.70 (5.21) | 117 | <0.001 |
APATHY | 9.22 (4.04) | 12.24 (4.39) | 119 | <0.001 |
STAY-II | 33.91 (13.07) | 39.14 (11.57) | 106 | 0.030 |
STAY-I | 30.93 (11.0) | 34.5 (9.6) | 107 | 0.079 |
PAS-A | 6.96 (4.77) | 7.95 (4.1) | 108 | 0.244 |
PAS-B | 1.89 (2.6) | 2.8 (3.1) | 108 | 0.107 |
PAS-C | 1.11 (2.12) | 2.14 (2.68) | 108 | 0.032 |
BDI II | 7.08 (5.9) | 10.3 (7.1) | 128 | 0.008 |
BIS11 | 45.20 (15.77) | 53.76 (15.38) | 105 | 0.006 |
QUIPRS | 1.90 (5.13) | 3.41 (6.44) | 124 | 0.170 |
Behavior Scale | Moderator | Interaction Term | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
PAS-A | QRC | PAS-A * QRC Total | 0.093 |
Early Score | PAS-A * Early Score | 0.316 | |
Middle Score | PAS-A * Middle Score | 0.180 | |
Late Score | PAS-A * Late Score | 0.048 | |
PAS-C | QRC | PAS-C * CR | 0.090 |
Early Score | PAS-C * Early Score | 0.781 | |
Middle Score | PAS-C * Middle Score | 0.140 | |
Late Score | PAS-C * Late Score | <0.001 | |
BDI | CR | BDI-II * CR | 0.131 |
Early Score | BDI-II * Early Score | 0.116 | |
Middle Score | BDI-II * Middle Score | 0.649 | |
Late Score | BDI-II * Late Score | 0.236 | |
APATHY | CR | APATHY * CR | 0.216 |
Early Score | APATHY * Early Score | 0.633 | |
Middle Score | APATHY * Middle Score | 0.176 | |
Late Score | APATHY * Late Score | 0.152 | |
PAS-B | QRC | PAS-B * QRC Total | 0.377 |
Early Score | PAS-B * Early Score | 0.177 | |
Middle Score | PAS-B * Middle Score | 0.690 | |
Late Score | PAS-B * Late Score | 0.780 | |
QUIPRS | QRC | QUIPRS * QRC Total | 0.091 |
Early Score | QUIPRS * Early Score | 0.067 | |
Middle Score | QUIPRS * Middle Score | 0.306 | |
Late Score | QUIPRS * Late Score | 0.580 | |
STAY-I | QRC | STAIYI * QRC Total | 0.740 |
Early Score | STAIYI * Early Score | 0.990 | |
Middle Score | STAIYI * Middle Score | 0.832 | |
Late Score | STAIYI * Late Score | 0.298 | |
STAY-II | QRC | STAIYII * QRC Total | 0.614 |
Early Score | STAIYII * Early Score | 0.863 | |
Middle Score | STAIYII * Middle Score | 0.932 | |
Late Score | STAIYII * Late Score | 0.266 | |
BIS11 | QRC | BIS11 * QRC Total | 0.238 |
Early Score | BIS11 * Early Score | 0.108 | |
Middle Score | BIS11 * Middle Score | 0.426 | |
Late Score | BIS11 * Late Score | 0.722 |
Simple Slope Estimates | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
95% Confidence Interval | ||||||
Estimate | SE | Lower | Upper | Z | p | |
Average (Mean) | 0.593 | 0.0991 | 0.3988 | 0.787 | 5.99 | <0.001 |
Low (−1SD) | 0.818 | 0.1521 | 0.5194 | 1.116 | 5.37 | <0.001 |
High (+1SD) | 0.368 | 0.1509 | 0.0726 | 0.664 | 2.44 | 0.015 |
Simple Slope Estimates | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
95% Confidence Interval | ||||||
Estimate | SE | Lower | Upper | Z | p | |
Average (mean) | 0.896 | 0.197 | 0.510 | 1.282 | 4.55 | <0.001 |
Low (−1SD) | 0.543 | 0.206 | 0.139 | 0.947 | 2.64 | 0.008 |
High (+1SD) | 1.249 | 0.266 | 0.728 | 1.770 | 4.70 | <0.001 |
Simple Slope Estimates | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate | SE | Z | p | |
Average (mean) | 0.772 | 0.136 | 5.69 | < 0.001 |
Low (−1SD) | 1.012 | 0.203 | 4.99 | <0.001 |
High (+1SD) | 0.533 | 0.193 | 2.76 | 0.006 |
Simple Slope Estimates | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
95% Confidence Interval | ||||||
Estimate | SE | Lower | Upper | Z | p | |
Average (mean) | 0.637 | 0.258 | 0.131 | 1.143 | 2.466 | 0.014 |
Low (−1SD) | 0.180 | 0.238 | −0.287 | 0.647 | 0.755 | 0.450 |
High (+1SD) | 1.094 | 0.333 | 0.441 | 1.746 | 3.285 | 0.001 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Siri, C.; Carollo, A.; Biundo, R.; Crepaldi, M.; Weis, L.; Isaias, I.U.; Antonini, A.; Rusconi, M.L.; Canesi, M. The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Coping with Subjective Cognitive Complaints: An Exploratory Study of People with Parkinson’s Disease (PwPD). Brain Sci. 2025, 15, 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15080795
Siri C, Carollo A, Biundo R, Crepaldi M, Weis L, Isaias IU, Antonini A, Rusconi ML, Canesi M. The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Coping with Subjective Cognitive Complaints: An Exploratory Study of People with Parkinson’s Disease (PwPD). Brain Sciences. 2025; 15(8):795. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15080795
Chicago/Turabian StyleSiri, Chiara, Anna Carollo, Roberta Biundo, Maura Crepaldi, Luca Weis, Ioannis Ugo Isaias, Angelo Antonini, Maria Luisa Rusconi, and Margherita Canesi. 2025. "The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Coping with Subjective Cognitive Complaints: An Exploratory Study of People with Parkinson’s Disease (PwPD)" Brain Sciences 15, no. 8: 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15080795
APA StyleSiri, C., Carollo, A., Biundo, R., Crepaldi, M., Weis, L., Isaias, I. U., Antonini, A., Rusconi, M. L., & Canesi, M. (2025). The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Coping with Subjective Cognitive Complaints: An Exploratory Study of People with Parkinson’s Disease (PwPD). Brain Sciences, 15(8), 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15080795