Adult Dyslexia Traits as Predictors of Hot/Cool Executive Function and Prospective Memory Abilities
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Executive Functioning in Dyslexia
1.2. Prospective Memory in Dyslexia
1.3. The Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Materials
2.3. Data Analysis
2.4. Procedure
3. Results
3.1. Correlational Analysis
3.2. Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis
3.2.1. Executive Functioning
3.2.2. Prospective Memory
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ADHD | Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder |
ARQ | Adult Reading Questionnaire |
ASRS | ADHD Self-Report Scale |
BDEFS | Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale |
BRIEF-A | Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function (Adult version) |
CFQ | Cognitive Failures Questionnaire |
EF | Executive Functioning |
MPMI-s | The Short Version of the Metacognitive Prospective Memory Inventory |
PFC | Prefrontal Cortex |
PM | Prospective Memory |
PRMQ | Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire |
RPS | Research Participation Scheme |
SpLD | Specific Learning Difficulty |
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Background Measure | Number of Participants |
---|---|
Students (not in employment) | 48 |
Students (in employment) | 84 |
Employed (not currently a student) | 45 |
Unemployed/Retired | 3 |
Completed secondary school/college | 75 |
Completed undergraduate degree | 69 |
Completed postgraduate degree (Masters or Doctoral level) | 36 |
Questionnaire Measure | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | SD | Cronbach’s α |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ARQ | 1 | 32 | 13.44 | 6.10 | 0.76 |
ASRS | 0 | 6 | 2.66 | 1.95 | 0.74 |
BDEFS—Overall | 94 | 331 | 170.73 | 50.52 | 0.98 |
BDEFS—Self-Management to Time | 21 | 84 | 44.30 | 15.38 | 0.97 |
BDEFS—Self-Organisation/Problem Solving | 24 | 88 | 46.13 | 15.33 | 0.95 |
BDEFS—Self-Restraint/Inhibition | 19 | 72 | 33.72 | 10.87 | 0.93 |
BDEFS—Self-Motivation | 12 | 48 | 20.68 | 8.14 | 0.94 |
BDEFS—Self-Regulation of Emotion | 13 | 52 | 25.90 | 9.83 | 0.95 |
MPMI-s—PM Abilities | 12 | 40 | 28.64 | 6.09 | 0.79 |
MPMI-s—Internal PM Strategies | 7 | 35 | 23.18 | 6.21 | 0.84 |
MPMI-s—External PM Strategies | 7 | 35 | 24.29 | 6.65 | 0.84 |
1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. | 9. | 10. | 11. | 12. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Age | - | |||||||||||
2. ARQ | −0.23 ** | - | ||||||||||
3. ASRS | −0.10 | 0.52 *** | - | |||||||||
4. BDEFS Overall | −0.20 * | 0.56 *** | 0.73 *** | - | ||||||||
5. BDEFS Self-Management to Time | −0.13 | 0.54 *** | 0.75 *** | 0.89 *** | - | |||||||
6. BDEFS Self-Organisation/Problem Solving | −0.18 * | 0.62 *** | 0.68 *** | 0.87 *** | 0.73 *** | - | ||||||
7. BDEFS Self-Restraint/Inhibition | −0.14 | 0.39 *** | 0.56 *** | 0.83 *** | 0.63 *** | 0.57 *** | - | |||||
8. BDEFS Self-Motivation | −0.22 ** | 0.43 *** | 0.61 *** | 0.85 *** | 0.76 *** | 0.69 *** | 0.66 *** | - | ||||
9. BDEFS Self-Regulation of Emotion | −0.20 ** | 0.29 *** | 0.41 *** | 0.78 *** | 0.52 **** | 0.57 *** | 0.74 *** | 0.56 *** | - | |||
10. MPMI-s PM Abilities | −0.05 | −0.46 *** | −0.57 *** | −0.59 *** | −0.69 *** | −0.46 *** | −0.50 *** | −0.49 *** | −0.32 *** | - | ||
11. MPMI-s Internal PM Strategies | 0.09 | −0.03 | −0.02 | −0.01 | −0.08 | 0.08 | −0.07 | −0.03 | 0.04 | 0.36 *** | - | |
12. MPMI-s External PM Strategies | 0.22 ** | −0.09 | −0.12 | −0.04 | −0.15 * | 0.07 | −0.05 | −0.07 | 0.03 | 0.30 *** | 0.53 *** | - |
Variable | β (Standardised) | t | R | R2 (Adjusted) | ΔR2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BDEFS Overall | Block 1 | 0.195 | 0.032 | 0.038 | ||
Age | −0.195 | −2.568 * | ||||
Block 2 | 0.745 | 0.550 | 0.517 | |||
Age | −0.126 | −2.407 * | ||||
ASRS | 0.722 | 13.840 *** | ||||
Block 3 | 0.771 | 0.587 | 0.040 | |||
Age | −0.082 | −1.610 # | ||||
ASRS | 0.603 | 10.367 *** | ||||
ARQ | 0.238 | 3.997 *** |
Variable | β (Standardised) | t | R | R2 (Adjusted) | ΔR2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BDEFS Self-Management to Time | Block 1 | 0.125 | 0.010 | 0.016 | ||
Age | −0.125 | −1.623 # | ||||
Block 2 | 0.757 | 0.568 | 0.557 | |||
Age | −0.052 | −1.026 # | ||||
ASRS | 0.750 | 14.677 *** | ||||
Block 3 | 0.776 | 0.595 | 0.029 | |||
Age | −0.015 | −0.302 # | ||||
ASRS | 0.648 | 11.246 *** | ||||
ARQ | 0.204 | 3.459 *** | ||||
BDEFS Self-Organisation/ Problem Solving | Block 1 | 0.180 | 0.026 | 0.032 | ||
Age | −0.180 | −2.353 * | ||||
Block 2 | 0.688 | 0.466 | 0.441 | |||
Age | −0.115 | −2.028 * | ||||
ASRS | 0.667 | 11.743 *** | ||||
Block 3 | 0.747 | 0.550 | 0.085 | |||
Age | −0.052 | −0.966 # | ||||
ASRS | 0.492 | 8.101 *** | ||||
ARQ | 0.349 | 5.626 *** |
Variable | β (Standardised) | t | R | R2 (Adjusted) | ΔR2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BDEFS Self-Restraint/Inhibition | Block 1 | 0.140 | 0.014 | 0.020 | ||
Age | −0.140 | −1.822 # | ||||
Block 2 | 0.587 | 0.336 | 0.325 | |||
Age | −0.085 | −1.337 # | ||||
ASRS | 0.572 | 9.036 *** | ||||
Block 3 | 0.602 | 0.351 | 0.019 | |||
Age | −0.055 | −0.856 # | ||||
ASRS | 0.490 | 6.726 *** | ||||
ARQ | 0.164 | 2.194 * | ||||
BDEFS Self-Motivation | Block 1 | 0.216 | 0.041 | 0.047 | ||
Age | −0.216 | −2.849 ** | ||||
Block 2 | 0.625 | 0.384 | 0.345 | |||
Age | −0.159 | −2.604 ** | ||||
ASRS | 0.590 | 9.664 *** | ||||
Block 3 | 0.633 | 0.390 | 0.009 | |||
Age | −0.138 | −2.216 * | ||||
ASRS | 0.532 | 7.516 *** | ||||
ARQ | 0.116 | 1.607 # | ||||
BDEFS Self-Regulation of Emotion | Block 1 | 0.203 | 0.035 | 0.041 | ||
Age | −0.203 | −2.667 ** | ||||
Block 2 | 0.455 | 0.197 | 0.166 | |||
Age | −0.163 | −2.342 * | ||||
ASRS | 0.409 | 5.870 *** | ||||
Block 3 | 0.461 | 0.198 | 0.006 | |||
Age | −0.147 | −2.060 * | ||||
ASRS | 0.364 | 4.489 *** | ||||
ARQ | 0.090 | 1.084 # |
Variable | β (Standardised) | t | R | R2 (Adjusted) | ΔR2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MPMI-s PM Abilities | Block 1 | 0.050 | −0.004 | 0.002 | ||
Age | −0.050 | −0.641 # | ||||
Block 2 | 0.576 | 0.324 | 0.330 | |||
Age | −0.105 | −1.649 # | ||||
ASRS | −0.577 | −9.023 *** | ||||
Block 3 | 0.613 | 0.364 | 0.044 | |||
Age | −0.151 | −2.379 * | ||||
ASRS | −0.452 | −6.258 *** | ||||
ARQ | −0.250 | −3.384 *** | ||||
MPMI-s Internal PM Strategies | Block 1 | 0.090 | 0.002 | 0.008 | ||
Age | 0.090 | 1.164 # | ||||
Block 2 | 0.091 | −0.004 | 0.000 | |||
Age | 0.089 | 1.136 # | ||||
ASRS | −0.015 | −0.198 # | 0.092 | −0.010 | 0.000 | |
Block 3 | ||||||
Age | 0.086 | 1.070 # | ||||
ASRS | −0.007 | −0.080 # | ||||
ARQ | −0.016 | −0.175 # | ||||
MPMI-s External PM Strategies | Block 1 | 0.223 | 0.044 | 0.050 | ||
Age | 0.223 | 2.951 ** | ||||
Block 2 | 0.240 | 0.046 | 0.008 | |||
Age | 0.215 | 2.826 ** | ||||
ASRS | −0.089 | −1.179 # | ||||
Block 3 | 0.240 | 0.041 | 0.000 | |||
Age | 0.214 | 2.748 ** | ||||
ASRS | −0.088 | −0.996 # | ||||
ARQ | −0.002 | −0.026 # |
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Protopapa, C.; Elward, R.L.; Smith-Spark, J.H. Adult Dyslexia Traits as Predictors of Hot/Cool Executive Function and Prospective Memory Abilities. Brain Sci. 2025, 15, 1065. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101065
Protopapa C, Elward RL, Smith-Spark JH. Adult Dyslexia Traits as Predictors of Hot/Cool Executive Function and Prospective Memory Abilities. Brain Sciences. 2025; 15(10):1065. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101065
Chicago/Turabian StyleProtopapa, Christina, Rachael L. Elward, and James H. Smith-Spark. 2025. "Adult Dyslexia Traits as Predictors of Hot/Cool Executive Function and Prospective Memory Abilities" Brain Sciences 15, no. 10: 1065. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101065
APA StyleProtopapa, C., Elward, R. L., & Smith-Spark, J. H. (2025). Adult Dyslexia Traits as Predictors of Hot/Cool Executive Function and Prospective Memory Abilities. Brain Sciences, 15(10), 1065. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101065