Risk of Migraine in Europeans with Low Melanin Levels—A Population Based Case-Control Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Videira, I.F.; Moura, D.F.; Magina, S. Mechanisms regulating melanogenesis. An. Bras. Dermatol. 2013, 88, 76–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pss, R.; Madhunapantula, S.V.; Betkerur, J.B.; Bovilla, V.R.; Shastry, V. Melanogenesis Markers Expression in Premature Graying of Hair: A Cross-Sectional Study. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 2022, 35, 180–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Juhasz, M.; Conic, R.R.Z.; Atanaskova Mesinkovska, N. Hair Follicle Melanogenesis Reflected in Hair Pigmentation as a Developmental Factor in Alopecia Areata. Skin Appendage Disord. 2021, 7, 370–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ito, S.; Wakamatsu, K. Diversity of human hair pigmentation as studied by chemical analysis of eumelanin and pheomelanin. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2011, 25, 1369–1380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wielgus, A.R.; Sarna, T. Melanin in human irides of different color and age of donors. Pigment Cell Res. 2005, 18, 454–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hushcha, Y.; Blo, I.; Oton-Gonzalez, L.; Mauro, G.D.; Martini, F.; Tognon, M.; Mattei, M. microRNAs in the Regulation of Melanogenesis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 6104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zecca, L.; Tampellini, D.; Gerlach, M.; Riederer, P.; Fariello, R.G.; Sulzer, D. Substantia nigra neuromelanin: Structure, synthesis, and molecular behaviour. Mol. Pathol. 2001, 54, 414–418. [Google Scholar]
- Capucciati, A.; Zucca, F.A.; Monzani, E.; Zecca, L.; Casella, L.; Hofer, T. Interaction of Neuromelanin with Xenobiotics and Consequences for Neurodegeneration; Promising Experimental Models. Antioxidants 2021, 10, 824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ishikuro, K.; Hattori, N.; Imanishi, R.; Furuya, K.; Nakata, T.; Dougu, N.; Yamamoto, M.; Konishi, H.; Nukui, T.; Hayashi, T.; et al. A Parkinson’s disease patient displaying increased neuromelanin-sensitive areas in the substantia nigra after rehabilitation with tDCS: A case report. Neurocase 2021, 27, 407–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Derby, C.D. Cephalopod ink: Production, chemistry, functions and applications. Mar. Drugs 2014, 12, 2700–2730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zecca, L.; Stroppolo, A.; Gatti, A.; Tampellini, D.; Toscani, M.; Gallorini, M.; Giaveri, G.; Arosio, P.; Santambrogio, P.; Fariello, R.G.; et al. The role of iron and copper molecules in the neuronal vulnerability of locus coeruleus and substantia nigra during aging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 9843–9848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Stepien, K.; Dzierzega-Lecznar, A.; Tam, I. The role of neuromelanin in Parkinson’s disease—New concepts. Wiad. Lek. 2007, 60, 563–569. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Zecca, L.; Wilms, H.; Geick, S.; Claasen, J.H.; Brandenburg, L.O.; Holzknecht, C.; Panizza, M.L.; Zucca, F.A.; Deuschl, G.; Sievers, J.; et al. Human neuromelanin induces neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the rat substantia nigra: Implications for Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neuropathol. 2008, 116, 47–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Juceviciute, N.; Banaityte, I.; Vaitkus, A.; Balnyte, R. Preclinical signs of Parkinson’s disease: A possible association of Parkinson’s disease with skin and hair features. Med. Hypotheses 2019, 127, 100–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miyamura, Y.; Coelho, S.G.; Wolber, R.; Miller, S.A.; Wakamatsu, K.; Zmudzka, B.Z.; Ito, S.; Smuda, C.; Passeron, T.; Choi, W.; et al. Regulation of human skin pigmentation and responses to ultraviolet radiation. Pigment Cell Res. 2007, 20, 2–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Szabo, G. The number of melanocytes in human epidermis. Br. Med. J. 1954, 1, 1016–1017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lakhan, M.K.; Lynch, L. Skin pigmentation. Medicine 2021, 49, 447–452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hadley, M.E.; Haskell-Luevano, C. The proopiomelanocortin system. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1999, 885, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Slominski, A. Neuroendocrine activity of the melanocyte. Exp. Dermatol. 2009, 18, 760–763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abdel-Malek, Z.; Scott, M.C.; Suzuki, I.; Tada, A.; Im, S.; Lamoreux, L.; Ito, S.; Barsh, G.; Hearing, V.J. The melanocortin-1 receptor is a key regulator of human cutaneous pigmentation. Pigment Cell Res. 2000, 13 (Suppl. 8), 156–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alaluf, S.; Atkins, D.; Barrett, K.; Blount, M.; Carter, N.; Heath, A. Ethnic variation in melanin content and composition in photoexposed and photoprotected human skin. Pigment Cell Res. 2002, 15, 112–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Naik, P.P.; Farrukh, S.N. Influence of Ethnicities and Skin Color Variations in Different Populations: A Review. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 2022, 35, 65–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sitek, A.; Zadzinska, E.; Rosset, I.; Antoszewski, B. Is increased constitutive skin and hair pigmentation an early sign of puberty? Homo 2013, 64, 205–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sitek, A.; Rosset, I.; Zadzinska, E.; Siewierska-Gorska, A.; Pietrowska, E.; Strapagiel, D. Selected gene polymorphisms effect on skin and hair pigmentation in Polish children at the prepubertal age. Anthropol. Anz. 2016, 73, 283–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- D’Orazio, J.; Jarrett, S.; Amaro-Ortiz, A.; Scott, T. UV radiation and the skin. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14, 12222–12248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Levine, J.A.; Sorace, M.; Spencer, J.; Siegel, D.M. The indoor UV tanning industry: A review of skin cancer risk, health benefit claims, and regulation. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2005, 53, 1038–1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rumpf, J.J.; Schirmer, M.; Fricke, C.; Weise, D.; Wagner, J.A.; Simon, J.; Classen, J. Light pigmentation phenotype is correlated with increased substantia nigra echogenicity. Mov. Disord. 2015, 30, 1848–1852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Disse, M.; Reich, H.; Lee, P.K.; Schram, S.S. A Review of the Association Between Parkinson Disease and Malignant Melanoma. Dermatol. Surg. 2016, 42, 141–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herrero Hernandez, E. Pigmentation genes link Parkinson’s disease to melanoma, opening a window on both etiologies. Med. Hypotheses 2009, 72, 280–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, X.; Feng, D.; Schwarzschild, M.A.; Gao, X. Red hair, MC1R variants, and risk for Parkinson’s disease—A meta-analysis. Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol. 2017, 4, 212–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Puig-Butille, J.A.; Escamez, M.J.; Garcia-Garcia, F.; Tell-Marti, G.; Fabra, A.; Martinez-Santamaria, L.; Badenas, C.; Aguilera, P.; Pevida, M.; Dopazo, J.; et al. Capturing the biological impact of CDKN2A and MC1R genes as an early predisposing event in melanoma and non melanoma skin cancer. Oncotarget 2014, 5, 1439–1451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Robinson, K.C.; Kemeny, L.V.; Fell, G.L.; Hermann, A.L.; Allouche, J.; Ding, W.; Yekkirala, A.; Hsiao, J.J.; Su, M.Y.; Theodosakis, N.; et al. Reduced MC4R signaling alters nociceptive thresholds associated with red hair. Sci. Adv. 2021, 7, eabd1310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Collaborators, G.B.D.H. Global, regional, and national burden of migraine and tension-type headache, 1990-2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 2018, 17, 954–976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Disease, G.B.D.; Injury, I.; Prevalence, C. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet 2016, 388, 1545–1602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fitzgerald, M.C.; Saelzler, U.G.; Panizzon, M.S. Sex Differences in Migraine: A Twin Study. Front. Pain. Res. 2021, 2, 766718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mulder, E.J.; Van Baal, C.; Gaist, D.; Kallela, M.; Kaprio, J.; Svensson, D.A.; Nyholt, D.R.; Martin, N.G.; MacGregor, A.J.; Cherkas, L.F.; et al. Genetic and environmental influences on migraine: A twin study across six countries. Twin. Res. 2003, 6, 422–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kobus, M.; Sitek, A.; Antoszewski, B.; Rozniecki, J.; Pelka, J.; Zadzinska, E. Prenatal oestrogen-testosterone balance as a risk factor of migraine in adults. J. Headache Pain. 2021, 22, 119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silberstein, S.D. Migraine. Lancet 2004, 363, 381–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, J.; Asoom, L.I.A.; Sunni, A.A.; Rafique, N.; Latif, R.; Saif, S.A.; Almandil, N.B.; Almohazey, D.; AbdulAzeez, S.; Borgio, J.F. Genetics, pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment, management, and prevention of migraine. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2021, 139, 111557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IHS. Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS) The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition. Cephalalgia 2018, 38, 1–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashina, M.; Katsarava, Z.; Do, T.P.; Buse, D.C.; Pozo-Rosich, P.; Ozge, A.; Krymchantowski, A.V.; Lebedeva, E.R.; Ravishankar, K.; Yu, S.; et al. Migraine: Epidemiology and systems of care. Lancet 2021, 397, 1485–1495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dai, Y.X.; Tai, Y.H.; Chen, C.C.; Chang, Y.T.; Chen, T.J.; Chen, M.H. Bidirectional association between alopecia areata and migraine: A nationwide population-based cohort study. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2021, 85, 254–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Silverberg, J.I. Association between childhood eczema and headaches: An analysis of 19 US population-based studies. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2016, 137, 492–499.e495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Steuer, A.B.; Cohen, J.M.; Wong, P.W.; Ho, R.S. Psoriasis and the risk of migraines in the United States. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2020, 82, 1225–1226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sinikumpu, S.P.; Vahanikkila, H.; Jokelainen, J.; Tasanen, K.; Huilaja, L. Male patients with rosacea have increased risk for migraine: A population-based study. Br. J. Dermatol. 2021, 185, 1058–1061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Egeberg, A.; Ashina, M.; Gaist, D.; Gislason, G.H.; Thyssen, J.P. Prevalence and risk of migraine in patients with rosacea: A population-based cohort study. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2017, 76, 454–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Christensen, C.E.; Andersen, F.S.; Wienholtz, N.; Egeberg, A.; Thyssen, J.P.; Ashina, M. The relationship between migraine and rosacea: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Cephalalgia 2018, 38, 1387–1398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Crawford, P.F. Migraine equivalent in the skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 1961, 73, 419–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berdouk, S.; Khan, S. Migraine with extensive skin markings: A case report. Int. J. Emerg. Med. 2018, 11, 32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Durmaz, E.O.a.C.D. Red forehead dot(s) and migraine. Indian J. Dermatol. Venereol. Leprol. 2020, 86, 704–705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sitek, A.; Rosset, I.; Zadzinska, E.; Kasielska-Trojan, A.; Neskoromna-Jedrzejczak, A.; Antoszewski, B. Skin color parameters and Fitzpatrick phototypes in estimating the risk of skin cancer: A case-control study in the Polish population. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2016, 74, 716–723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taylor, S.; Westerhof, W.; Im, S.; Lim, J. Noninvasive techniques for the evaluation of skin color. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2006, 54, S282–S290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Masuda, Y.; Yamashita, T.; Hirao, T.; Takahashi, M. An innovative method to measure skin pigmentation. Skin Res. Technol. 2009, 15, 224–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fitzpatrick, T.B. The validity and practicality of sun-reactive skin types I through VI. Arch. Dermatol. 1988, 124, 869–871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Falcon, K.; Fors, M.; Palacios Alvarez, S.; Veintimilla, K.; Lasso, N.; Navas, C. Assessment of Predictors of Sun Sensitivity as Defined by Fitzpatrick Skin Phototype in an Ecuadorian Population and Its Correlation with Skin Damage. Dermatology 2019, 235, 400–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pershing, L.K.; Tirumala, V.P.; Nelson, J.L.; Corlett, J.L.; Lin, A.G.; Meyer, L.J.; Leachman, S.A. Reflectance spectrophotometer: The dermatologists’ sphygmomanometer for skin phototyping? J. Investig. Dermatol. 2008, 128, 1633–1640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hail, C.U.; Schnoering, G.; Damak, M.; Poulikakos, D.; Eghlidi, H. A Plasmonic Painter’s Method of Color Mixing for a Continuous Red-Green-Blue Palette. ACS Nano 2020, 14, 1783–1791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ashina, M.; Buse, D.C.; Ashina, H.; Pozo-Rosich, P.; Peres, M.F.P.; Lee, M.J.; Terwindt, G.M.; Halker Singh, R.; Tassorelli, C.; Do, T.P.; et al. Migraine: Integrated approaches to clinical management and emerging treatments. Lancet 2021, 397, 1505–1518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashina, M.; Terwindt, G.M.; Al-Karagholi, M.A.; de Boer, I.; Lee, M.J.; Hay, D.L.; Schulte, L.H.; Hadjikhani, N.; Sinclair, A.J.; Ashina, H.; et al. Migraine: Disease characterisation, biomarkers, and precision medicine. Lancet 2021, 397, 1496–1504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tseng, W.P. Effects and dose—Response relationships of skin cancer and blackfoot disease with arsenic. Environ. Health Perspect. 1977, 19, 109–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.C.; Guo, Y.L.; Su, H.J.; Hsueh, Y.M.; Smith, T.J.; Ryan, L.M.; Lee, M.S.; Chao, S.C.; Lee, J.Y.; Christiani, D.C. Arsenic methylation and skin cancer risk in southwestern Taiwan. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2003, 45, 241–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Memon, A.; Bannister, P.; Rogers, I.; Sundin, J.; Al-Ayadhy, B.; James, P.W.; McNally, R.J.Q. Changing epidemiology and age-specific incidence of cutaneous malignant melanoma in England: An analysis of the national cancer registration data by age, gender and anatomical site, 1981-2018. Lancet Reg. Health Eur. 2021, 2, 100024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fijalkowska, M.; Koziej, M.; Antoszewski, B. Detailed head localization and incidence of skin cancers. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 12391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kricker, A.; Armstrong, B.K.; English, D.R.; Heenan, P.J. Pigmentary and cutaneous risk factors for non-melanocytic skin cancer—A case-control study. Int. J. Cancer 1991, 48, 650–662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nasti, T.H.; Timares, L. MC1R, eumelanin and pheomelanin: Their role in determining the susceptibility to skin cancer. Photochem. Photobiol. 2015, 91, 188–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ono, K.; Viet, C.T.; Ye, Y.; Dang, D.; Hitomi, S.; Toyono, T.; Inenaga, K.; Dolan, J.C.; Schmidt, B.L. Cutaneous pigmentation modulates skin sensitivity via tyrosinase-dependent dopaminergic signalling. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 9181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Freilinger, T.; Anttila, V.; de Vries, B.; Malik, R.; Kallela, M.; Terwindt, G.M.; Pozo-Rosich, P.; Winsvold, B.; Nyholt, D.R.; van Oosterhout, W.P.; et al. Genome-wide association analysis identifies susceptibility loci for migraine without aura. Nat. Genet. 2012, 44, 777–782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nealen, M.L.; Gold, M.S.; Thut, P.D.; Caterina, M.J. TRPM8 mRNA is expressed in a subset of cold-responsive trigeminal neurons from rat. J. Neurophysiol. 2003, 90, 515–520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Key, F.M.; Abdul-Aziz, M.A.; Mundry, R.; Peter, B.M.; Sekar, A.; D’Amato, M.; Dennis, M.Y.; Schmidt, J.M.; Andres, A.M. Human local adaptation of the TRPM8 cold receptor along a latitudinal cline. PLoS Genet. 2018, 14, e1007298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- WHO. Atlas of Headache Disorders and Resources in the World 2011; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44571 (accessed on 1 December 2021).
- Jablonski, N.G.; Chaplin, G. The colours of humanity: The evolution of pigmentation in the human lineage. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2017, 372, 20160349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- McNamara, M.E.; Rossi, V.; Slater, T.S.; Rogers, C.S.; Ducrest, A.L.; Dubey, S.; Roulin, A. Decoding the Evolution of Melanin in Vertebrates. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2021, 36, 430–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Marmura, M.J. Triggers, Protectors, and Predictors in Episodic Migraine. Curr. Pain Headache Rep. 2018, 22, 81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Maniyar, F.H.; Sprenger, T.; Schankin, C.; Goadsby, P.J. Photic hypersensitivity in the premonitory phase of migraine—A positron emission tomography study. Eur. J. Neurol. 2014, 21, 1178–1183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Variable | FEMALES | Student t-Test * | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Migraine Group N = 115 | Control Group N = 64 | t | p | |
Age | 42.55 ± 14.18 | 43.73 ± 14.65 | −0.53 | 0.597 |
MI | 27.08 ± 2.81 | 28.57 ± 3.25 | −3.21 | 0.002 |
EI | 9.26 ± 1.65 | 10.27 ± 1.90 | −3.73 | 0.000 |
L* | 45.99 ± 3.96 | 43.99 ± 4.11 | 3.21 | 0.002 |
a* | 13.61 ± 1.75 | 14.61 ± 1.96 | −3.52 | 0.001 |
b* | 16.12 ± 3.04 | 16.17 ± 3.44 | −0.11 | 0.913 |
R | 137.01 ± 8.60 | 132.58 ± 9.70 | 3.15 | 0.002 |
G | 111.07 ± 11.83 | 105.24 ± 11.23 | 3.22 | 0.002 |
B | 106.27 ± 12.34 | 100.27 ± 13.90 | 2.98 | 0.003 |
Variable | MALES | Student t-Test * | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Migraine Group N = 33 | Control Group N = 43 | t | p | |
Age | 41.52 ± 15.72 | 41.07 ± 13.70 | 0.13 | 0.896 |
MI | 27.07 ± 2.30 | 28.27 ± 2.38 | −2.21 | 0.030 |
EI | 9.66 ± 1.63 | 10.45 ± 2.10 | −1.78 | 0.080 |
L* | 45.55 ± 3.31 | 44.00 ± 3.45 | 1.98 | 0.051 |
a* | 14.72 ± 2.52 | 15.14 ± 2.80 | −0.68 | 0.500 |
b* | 14.78 ± 2.68 | 16.74 ± 5.29 | −2.10 | 0.039 |
R | 137.08 ± 7.33 | 133.26 ± 7.32 | 2.25 | 0.028 |
G | 109.88 ± 8.78 | 105.45 ± 9.62 | 2.06 | 0.043 |
B | 104.89 ± 12.06 | 100.21 ± 12.96 | 1.61 | 0.112 |
Dependent Variable | Independent Variable | Covariate | partial η2Group | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study Group | Age | ||||
F | p | F | p | ||
MI | 10.01 | 0.002 | 1.5 | 0.222 | 0.05 |
EI | 13.72 | 0.000 | 0.08 | 0.778 | 0.07 |
L* | 9.96 | 0.002 | 1.97 | 0.162 | 0.05 |
a* | 12.49 | 0.001 | 0.41 | 0.525 | 0.07 |
b* | 0.31 | 0.581 | 0.01 | 0.931 | 0.00 |
R | 9.63 | 0.002 | 1.84 | 0.177 | 0.05 |
G | 10.15 | 0.002 | 0.24 | 0.622 | 0.05 |
B | 8.62 | 0.004 | 0.95 | 0.331 | 0.05 |
Dependent Variable | Independent Variable | Covariate | partial η2Group | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study Group | Age | ||||
F | p | F | p | ||
MI | 4.80 | 0.032 | 0.34 | 0.561 | 0.06 |
EI | 3.28 | 0.074 | 7.56 | 0.008 | 0.04 |
L* | 3.89 | 0.052 | 2.16 | 0.146 | 0.05 |
a* | 0.44 | 0.508 | 7.59 | 0.007 | 0.01 |
b* | 3.72 | 0.058 | 1.17 | 0.283 | 0.05 |
R | 4.97 | 0.029 | 0.18 | 0.672 | 0.06 |
G | 4.24 | 0.043 | 2.36 | 0.129 | 0.05 |
B | 2.59 | 0.112 | 3.87 | 0.053 | 0.03 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kobus, M.; Żądzińska, E.; Sitek, A.; Pełka, J.; Rożniecki, J.J.; Antoszewski, B. Risk of Migraine in Europeans with Low Melanin Levels—A Population Based Case-Control Study. Brain Sci. 2022, 12, 620. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12050620
Kobus M, Żądzińska E, Sitek A, Pełka J, Rożniecki JJ, Antoszewski B. Risk of Migraine in Europeans with Low Melanin Levels—A Population Based Case-Control Study. Brain Sciences. 2022; 12(5):620. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12050620
Chicago/Turabian StyleKobus, Magdalena, Elżbieta Żądzińska, Aneta Sitek, Jacek Pełka, Jacek J. Rożniecki, and Bogusław Antoszewski. 2022. "Risk of Migraine in Europeans with Low Melanin Levels—A Population Based Case-Control Study" Brain Sciences 12, no. 5: 620. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12050620
APA StyleKobus, M., Żądzińska, E., Sitek, A., Pełka, J., Rożniecki, J. J., & Antoszewski, B. (2022). Risk of Migraine in Europeans with Low Melanin Levels—A Population Based Case-Control Study. Brain Sciences, 12(5), 620. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12050620