Confronting Lexical Choice and Error Distribution in Written French: New Insights into the Linguistic Insecurity of Students with Dyslexia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Dyslexia in Higher Education in France
1.2. What is Dyslexia?
1.2.1. Normative Definition
1.2.2. An Evolving Definition
1.3. Written Production and Dyslexia
1.3.1. Written Production: A Complex Task
1.3.2. Spelling and Dyslexia in Adulthood
1.4. Hypotheses
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Psycholinguistic Task: Data’s Collection
2.2.1. Protocol: Textual Elicitation
2.2.2. Written Data Exploitation
2.2.3. Coding
- Length properties: numbers of written syllables and word length: short words: 1 to 4 letters; medium words: 5 to 7 letters; long words: more than 8 letters; The three indicators of word length (number of letters, phonemes, and syllables) are all provided by Lexique and Manulex databases and conventionally used in psycholinguistic studies on written or spoken language [32,39].
- Graphemic and phonetic properties: the phoneme/grapheme consistency indicator, the grapheme/phoneme consistency indicator, based on the calculation of Lété, Sprenger-Charolles & Colé [76]; and the phonological structure (consonant/vowel succession);
- Frequency properties: frequency of lemmas (the lemma of a word is actually the form that is used as an entry in dictionaries. In inflected languages like French, these are singular masculine forms for nouns and adjectives and infinitive forms for verbs), according to the Lexique.org lexical database (based on French movie subtitles, number of occurrences per million);
- Syntactic properties: the grammatical class (abbreviation, adjective, adverb, conjunction, determiner, noun, preposition, pronoun or verb); we have also added a category for punctuation;
- Length properties: 2 syllables; length: medium word;
- Frequency properties: 2,128,000;
- Graphemic and phonetic properties: the phoneme/grapheme consistency indicator: 71,216, the grapheme/phoneme consistency indicator: 75,92 and the phonological structure: CVCVV;
- Syntactic properties: the grammatical class: noun.
2.2.4. Processing Chain
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary Information
3.2. Words Characteristics
3.2.1. Length Indicators
3.2.2. Graphemic and Phonetic Properties
3.2.3. Frequency Indicator
3.2.4. Syntactic Properties
3.3. Error Proportions
3.3.1. Length Indicators
3.3.2. Length Indicators
- a proportion of errors on short words much higher (27 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.027; S.D. = 0.017) than control students (8 per 1000 words; proportion = 0.008; S.D. = 0.010);
- a proportion of errors on medium words much higher (30 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.030; S.D. = 0.020) than control students (7 per 1000 words; proportion = 0.007; S.D. = 0.007);
- a proportion of errors on short words much higher (36 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.036; S.D. = 0.028) than the control students (14 per 1000 words; proportion = 0.014; S.D. = 0.015).
3.3.3. Frequency Indicator
3.3.4. Graphemic and Phonetic Properties
- more errors than control students on words with one syllable (18 errors out of 1000 words vs. 10 for controls), with two syllables (33 errors out of 1000 words vs. 10 for controls), and those with more than two syllables (28 errors out of 1000 words vs. 13 for controls);
- more errors than control students on words with a grapheme-phoneme correspondence indicator lower than 61.3 (25 errors out of 1000 words against 8, for controls), between 61.3 and 72.6 (23 errors out of 1000 words against 7, for controls), between 72.6 and 79.5 (17 errors out of 1000 words against 9, for controls) and those higher than 79.5 (28 errors out of 1000 words against 9, for controls);
- more errors than control students on words with a phoneme-grapheme correspondence indicator lower than 79.5 (27 errors out of 1000 words against 8, for controls), between 79.5 and 86.9 (19 errors out of 1000 words against 9, for controls), between 86.9 and 96.2 (25 errors out of 1000 words against 8, for controls) and those higher than 96.2 (20 errors out of 1000 words against 8, for controls);
- more errors than control students on words with a phonological structure indicator of 0 (14 errors on 1000 words against 5, for controls), of 1 (29 errors on 1000 words against 10, for controls), higher than 1 (49 errors on 1000 words against 17, for controls).
3.3.5. Syntactic Properties
- a higher proportion of errors on adjectives (13 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.013; S.D. = 0.011) than control students’ texts (4 per 1000 words; proportion = 0.004; S.D. = 0.007);
- a higher proportion of errors on determiners (3 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.003; S.D. = 0.004) than control students’ texts (0 per 1000 words; proportion = 0; S.D. = 0.001);
- a higher proportion of errors on nouns (27 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.027; S.D. = 0.011) than control students’ texts (8 per 1000 words; proportion = 0.008; S.D. = 0.011);
- a higher proportion of errors on prepositions (5 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.005; S.D. = 0.007) than control students’ texts (1 per 1000 words; proportion = 0.001; S.D. = 0.002);
- a higher proportion of errors on verbs (32 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.032; S.D. = 0.018) than control students’ texts (10 per 1000 words; proportion = 0.010; S.D. = 0.010).
3.4. Errors Characteristics
3.4.1. Length of Words Containing an Error
3.4.2. Frequency of Words Containing an Error
3.4.3. Graphemic and Phonological Properties of Words Containing Error(s)
3.4.4. Syntactic Properties
- a higher proportion of errors on determiners (34 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.034; S.D. = 0.048) than control students’ texts (9 per 1000 words; proportion = 0.009; S.D. = 0.001);
- a higher proportion of errors on prepositions (5 errors per 1000 words; proportion = 0.005; S.D. = 0.007) than control students’ texts (1 per 1000 words; proportion = 0.001; S.D. = 0.033);
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
5.1. Perspectives
5.2. Limits of the Present Study
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Students with Dyslexia | Control Students | |
---|---|---|
Mean age | 21.7 | 21.8 |
Range | 18.1–28.5 | 18.1–28.9 |
Total number of subjects | 21 | 22 |
According to gender | 9 women/12 men | 10 women/12 men |
Expository Texts | Narrative Texts | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Students with Dyslexia | Control Students | Students with Dyslexia | Control Students | |
Mean number of words per text | 198.2 (101) | 181.1 (139) | 207 (131) | 181 (112) |
Mean number of clauses per text | 25.8 (12.7) | 25 (17) | 30.7 (20) | 27 (16) |
Mean number of TU per text | 12 (5) | 12 (9.4) | 14.7 (9.9) | 13.8 (8.2) |
Mean number of clauses per TU | 2.1 (0.5) | 2.2 (0.4) | 2.1 (0.3) | 2.04 (0.5) |
Mean duration of production (in minutes) | 13.85 (8.60) | 11.02 (8.16) | 11.77 (7.60) | 9.01 (4.94) |
Expository Texts | Narrative Texts | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Students with Dyslexia | Control Students | Total | Students with Dyslexia | Control Students | Total | |
Number of words | 4161 | 4017 | 8178 | 4425 | 4099 | 8524 |
Number of errors | 502 | 94 | 596 | 461 | 120 | 581 |
Group | N | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | MANOVA | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Quartiles | <10.8 | 10.8–50.1 | 50.1–567.6 | >567.6 | |||
Dys. | 42 | 0.018 | 0.021 | 0.025 | 0.028 | F(2.77) = 14.469; p < 0.001 | S |
Control | 44 | 0.008 | 0.009 | 0.008 | 0.007 |
Group | N | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | MANOVA | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of syllables | |||||||
Levels | 1 | 2 | >2 | ||||
Dys. | 42 | 0.018 | 0.033 | 0.028 | F(3.78) = 4.0857; p < 0.01 | S | |
Control | 44 | 0.010 | 0.010 | 0.013 | |||
Indicator of grapheme-phoneme consistency | |||||||
Levels | <61.3 | 61.3–72.6 | 72.6–79.5 | >79.5 | |||
Dys. | 42 | 0.025 | 0.023 | 0.017 | 0.028 | F(2.77) = 12.829; p < 0.001 | S |
Control | 44 | 0.008 | 0.007 | 0.009 | 0.009 | ||
Indicator of phoneme-grapheme consistency | |||||||
Levels | <79.5 | 79.5–86.9 | 86.9–96.2 | >96.2 | |||
Dys. | 42 | 0.027 | 0.019 | 0.025 | 0.020 | F(2.77) = 12.370; p < 0.001 | S |
Control | 44 | 0.008 | 0.009 | 0.008 | 0.008 | ||
Indicator of phonological structure | |||||||
Levels | 0 | 1 | >1 | ||||
Dys. | 42 | 0.014 | 0.029 | 0.049 | F(3.78) = 3.3536; p < 0.05 | S | |
Control | 44 | 0.005 | 0.010 | 0.017 |
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Mazur-Palandre, A.; Quignard, M.; Witko, A. Confronting Lexical Choice and Error Distribution in Written French: New Insights into the Linguistic Insecurity of Students with Dyslexia. Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11070922
Mazur-Palandre A, Quignard M, Witko A. Confronting Lexical Choice and Error Distribution in Written French: New Insights into the Linguistic Insecurity of Students with Dyslexia. Brain Sciences. 2021; 11(7):922. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11070922
Chicago/Turabian StyleMazur-Palandre, Audrey, Matthieu Quignard, and Agnès Witko. 2021. "Confronting Lexical Choice and Error Distribution in Written French: New Insights into the Linguistic Insecurity of Students with Dyslexia" Brain Sciences 11, no. 7: 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11070922