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Article

Comparable Analysis of Natural and Modified Starches from Kazakhstan: Physicochemical Properties, Applications, and Insights on Biodegradable Films

by
Marat Muratkhan
1,2,*,
Kakimova Zhainagul
2,
Yernaz Yermekov
1,
Kamanova Svetlana
1,
Dana Toimbayeva
1,
Indira Temirova
1,
Kiykbay Amirsana
1,
Dina Khamitova
1,
Yerlan Zharykbasov
2,
Adilet Sugirbay
2,
Saduakhasova Saule
1 and
Gulnazym Ospankulova
1,*
1
Department of Food Technology and Processing Products, Technical Faculty, Saken Seifullin Kazakh Agrotechnical Research University, Zhenis Avenue, 62, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan
2
Department of Food Production Technology and Biotechnology, The Engineering–Technological Faculty, Shakarim University, Glinka 20A, Semey 071412, Kazakhstan
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 3938; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073938
Submission received: 17 January 2025 / Revised: 31 March 2025 / Accepted: 1 April 2025 / Published: 3 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Science and Technology)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study evaluates the potential of natural and thermally modified starches from Kazakhstan, including cassava, potato, wheat, corn, pea, and rice, for the production of biodegradable films. Key physicochemical properties were analyzed using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and a Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA). The results show that cassava starch, with the highest magnesium content (43.07 mg/100 g) and peak viscosity (1300 RVU), exhibits superior mechanical strength and elasticity, making it ideal for durable agricultural films. Corn starch, with high crystallinity and moderate viscosity (1150 RVU), exhibits excellent stability for long-term applications. In contrast, wheat and rice starches, with lower viscosities (750 and 650 RVU, respectively) and high biodegradability, are more suitable for short-term eco-friendly applications. Modification processes improved moisture resistance and reduced retrogradation tendencies, particularly in cassava and corn starches. SEM analysis revealed that modified starches from cassava and corn have dense and uniform surface structures, enhancing film durability and flexibility. These findings highlight the potential of utilizing Kazakhstan’s starch resources for localized biodegradable film production, reducing reliance on imports while promoting sustainable agriculture.

1. Introduction

In global agricultural production, the use of plastic mulch has become an essential means of increasing crop yield and quality. However, its widespread application has also led to severe environmental issues. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, approximately 12.5 million tons of plastic products are consumed annually in the agricultural supply chain, with the crop production and livestock sectors alone accounting for 10.2 million tons [1]. While these plastic products enhance agricultural productivity, they also contribute to soil and water pollution, adversely affecting ecosystem health [2,3].
In Kazakhstan, agriculture is a key pillar of the national economy, and plastic mulch is widely used to enhance crop yield and quality. However, due to the lack of effective recycling and disposal mechanisms, residual plastic mulch accumulates in the soil, leading to soil degradation and environmental pollution [4]. According to the research findings of Lili Yang et al. (2023), the accumulation of residual mulch increases at a rate of 15.0 kg/ha per year. When the residual mulch density reaches 1210 kg/ha, the yield reduction caused by plastic residue exceeds the yield benefits provided by mulching; furthermore, the amount of residual plastic mulch is positively correlated with soil salinity variability [5]. This issue not only raises agricultural production costs but also poses a significant threat to sustainable agricultural development.
Due to its abundant availability, excellent renewability, cost-effectiveness, and biodegradability, natural starch has emerged as a promising alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics in various fields, including agricultural mulch films, food packaging, and biomedicine [6,7,8]. With the global push for environmental protection and sustainable development strategies, the development of economical, efficient, and eco-friendly starch-based materials has become a key research focus. However, natural starch still faces several challenges in industrial applications, such as poor solubility, insufficient shear resistance, low mechanical strength, and a tendency to retrograde, which significantly limit its widespread adoption in biodegradable mulch films [9,10].
To overcome these limitations, various modification techniques have been extensively studied, including physical, chemical, and enzymatic modifications [11]. Among these, physical modification techniques have gained significant attention in recent years due to their simplicity, efficiency, and absence of chemical residues [12]. Dry heat treatment (DHT), in particular, has become a popular starch modification method due to its high efficiency, environmental friendliness, and safety. This technique regulates the molecular structure and granule characteristics of starch through hot air treatment without the use of any chemical reagents [13]. Compared to other modification methods, DHT offers several advantages, such as a simple processing flow, high automation potential, and eco-friendliness, making it particularly suitable for industrial-scale production [14].
Starch granules exhibit a complex structure composed of both crystalline and amorphous regions [9]. The dense crystalline region significantly hinders the penetration of water and modification of agents into the granules, thereby reducing the reactivity and modification efficiency of natural starch [15]. During DHT, the partial breakage and rearrangement of starch molecular chains occur, leading to significant changes in the chain length distribution of amylose and amylopectin, with an increased proportion of shorter chains [16]. Simultaneously, the enhancement of hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces forms a new molecular cross-linking network, improving the thermal stability and anti-retrogradation properties of starch [17]. Furthermore, DHT significantly reduces starch crystallinity and induces the formation of surface microcracks and pores, increasing the specific surface area, improving water permeability and swelling ability, and ultimately enhancing the overall processing performance of starch [18].
Kazakhstan has abundant and diverse starch resources, including potato, wheat, corn, pea, rice, and cassava. However, research on the physicochemical properties, structural changes, and application performance of locally sourced starch, particularly after modification, remains insufficient. Moreover, the agricultural sector heavily relies on imported biodegradable mulch film products, leading to increased production costs and weakened sustainability. Therefore, this study aims to systematically evaluate the impact of dry heat treatment on the molecular structure, crystallization characteristics, gelatinization properties, and digestibility of starches from different sources in Kazakhstan. It seeks to identify the most suitable starch sources and optimal modification conditions while exploring their application potential in biodegradable mulch films. The findings of this study will provide technical support and theoretical guidance for environmental protection and sustainable agricultural development in Kazakhstan [19].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The raw materials were sourced from Kazakhstan, as shown in Table 1. Starch was extracted and cleaned using the water extraction method described by Wei Liang et al. (2022) [20]. The starch modification was based on the method described by Wei Liang et al. (2024) [21], with a processing time of 5 h at a temperature of 130 °C. Other lab supplies were purchased from Bio Chem Reagent Co., Ltd., Astana, Kazakhstan. All chemicals and reagents utilized were analytical grades.

2.2. Determination of Physicochemical Properties

2.2.1. Starch Composition Analysis

The amylose content in starch was determined using the iodometric method following ISO 6647-1:2020 [22], which provides a quantitative assessment of amylose content (%) in starch and starch-containing materials. Since amylopectin is the complementary fraction of starch, its content was calculated indirectly by subtracting the amylose content from the total starch content, as outlined in the same standard.

2.2.2. Moisture and Ash Content Determination

To further characterize the physical properties of the starch samples, the moisture content was measured according to ISO 712:2009 [23], a standard method for determining the moisture percentage in starch and cereal products. The ash content, which reflects the total mineral residue present in the samples, was determined following ISO 2171:2023 [24].

2.2.3. Mineral Content Analysis

The mineral composition of the samples was analyzed to assess their nutritional and functional properties. The determination of zinc content was performed in accordance with ISO 17294-2:2016 [25], employing inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), with the results expressed in mg/kg. Similarly, magnesium content was measured using ISO 6869:2000 [26], utilizing atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and reporting the values in mg/100 g.
The iron content was determined following ISO 2590:1973 [27], using a titration method, with the results expressed in mg/kg. Calcium content was analyzed according to ISO 6491:1998 [28], applying atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and reporting the values in mg/100 g. Lastly, the selenium content in the samples was assessed based on ISO 20649:2015 [29], which also employed ICP-MS, with the results expressed in mg/100 g.

2.3. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) Analysis

The sample was measured using an FTIR spectrometer (Vertex 70, Bruker Co., Ltd., Billerica, Germany). The required amount of the sample was weighed and mixed with KBr to prepare a pressed tablet. The samples were scanned in the range of 400–4000 cm−1 with a spectral resolution of 4 cm−1. Pure KBr was used as a control.

2.4. Determination of Thermal Properties with DSC

The thermal properties of the sample were determined using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) (Q2000, TA Instruments Co., Ltd., New Castle, DE, USA). Briefly, a 3.0 mg sample was placed in an aluminum crucible and subjected to heating within a temperature range of 20 to 240 °C under a nitrogen atmosphere. The heating and cooling procedures were set as follows: The temperature was increased from 20 °C to 240 °C at a rate of 20 °C/min and held for 5 min. The sample was then cooled to 0 °C at a rate of 20 °C/min and held for 5 min, during which the resulting curve represented the crystallization curve. Finally, the temperature was increased again from 0 °C to 240 °C at a rate of 20 °C/min, with the resulting curve representing the melting curve. Each sample was tested three times, and both crystallization and melting curves were obtained.

2.5. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis

The sample was analyzed using an X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku D/max2200pc, Rigaku Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Briefly, the required amount of the plastic sample was weighed and placed in the instrument tray. The parameters were set as follows: accelerating voltage—40 kV, current—40 mA, diffraction angle range (2θ)—50°, and scanning speed—6°/min. Each sample was tested three times, and XRD curves were obtained.

2.6. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis

The samples were prepared according to the method described by Bonilla et al. (2014) [30]. The morphological structure of the plastic (3 mm × 3 mm) was observed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (JCM-7000, JEOL Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Briefly, the sample was attached to conductive adhesive and coated with gold. For cross-sectional observation, the sample was frozen and fractured, then photographed at a magnification of 3000× and 800×.

2.7. Viscosity Analysis (RVA)

The samples were prepared following the method described by Bonilla et al. (2014) [31]. The viscosity properties of the plastic were analyzed using a viscometer (RVA) (Rapid Visco Analyzer, Perten Instruments, Hägersten, Sweden). Briefly, 3 g of the sample was weighed and placed into the viscometer tube, followed by the addition of 25 mL of distilled water. The sample was heated and stirred according to a standard temperature program: initially heated to 50 °C, then gradually raised to 95 °C at a constant rate, held at this temperature, and subsequently cooled to 50 °C. Each sample was tested three times, and viscosity curves were generated.

2.8. Molecular Weight (MW) Analysis

According to Ge et al. (2021) [32], the molecular weight (Mw) of starch was measured using a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system (Waters, Model 410, MA). A suspension containing 20 mg of starch and 1 mL of a 0.1 mol/L NaNO3 solution was heated at 100 °C for 5 min with constant stirring. Starch molecules were separated using an Ultra hydrogel™ Linear column (7.8 mm × 300 mm, Waters, Tokyo, Japan). A differential refractive index detector (600E, Waters, Milford, CT, USA) was used as the detector. The mobile phase consisted of 0.1 mol/L NaNO3 with a flow rate of 0.6 mL/min.

2.9. Statistical Analysis

All experiments were conducted in triplicate. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS Statistics 19.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The results were expressed as mean ± standard error and further analyzed using Duncan’s multiple range tests with a significance level of p < 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Physicochemical Properties

The biochemical and mineral compositions of starches and other natural polymer resources from various plants play a key role in the development of biodegradable mulch films. Monitoring the composition and properties of raw materials used for the production and modification of polymers is essential to maintaining their functional characteristics and ensuring the required product quality at every stage of the process.
The primary physicochemical properties of starches obtained from natural raw materials, such as potatoes, wheat, corn, peas, rice, and cassava, are summarized in Table 2.
Numerous studies have confirmed the significant role of macronutrients and trace elements in the technological and consumer properties of polymers used for manufacturing coating layers [33]. The deficiency of certain elements can negatively affect the strength and flexibility of the resulting materials. Therefore, it is crucial to pay attention to preserving these elements, particularly through recycling. The analysis of mineral composition in various starches used in this study (Table 3) indicates that cassava starch has the highest magnesium content at 43.07 mg/100 g.
As shown in Table 3, starch from different sources was analyzed to identify the best options for producing biodegradable soil protection films. Potato starch from Northern Kazakhstan, with its high calcium content (30 mg/100 g), enhances plasticity and strength during modification, while its crystallinity provides low-temperature resistance, making it ideal for cold climates [30,34]. Acetylation and oxidation improve its water resistance, making it suitable for high-humidity regions. Cassava starch, with high magnesium content and moderate crystallinity, ensures excellent mechanical performance and elasticity, making it ideal for agricultural films that retain moisture and provide protection. Crosslinking and oxidation further enhance its flexibility and crack resistance, supporting natural biodegradability. Corn starch from the Kostanay and Shymkent regions, characterized by high crystallinity, forms strong biodegradable films, and its swelling capacity aids in creating dense coatings after gelatinization [35]. Crosslinking and acetylation improve its strength while maintaining biodegradability, making it suitable for long-term soil coverage. Among these, cassava starch and corn starch exhibit the greatest potential, with cassava offering flexibility and corn providing strength. Modifications through crosslinking and oxidation ensure mechanical durability and effective biodegradation, optimizing the quality and efficiency of biodegradable films [36].

3.2. FT-IR Analysis

As shown in Figure 1, starches from cassava, potato, wheat, corn, pea, and rice are suitable raw materials for the production of biodegradable films. Each of these starches possesses unique molecular, chemical, and physical properties, which serve as both advantages and limitations in developing eco-friendly films.
Cassava starch, with its high amylopectin content, contributes to the production of elastic and durable films. However, its high hydrophilicity results in significant water absorption under humid conditions, potentially compromising the film’s longevity. To address this limitation, additional additives or thermal modification may be required to enhance the stability of cassava starch-based films in high-moisture environments [37].
Potato starch demonstrates excellent water-binding capacity and chemical stability, making it suitable for strong and mechanically stable films. Thermal modification further improves its resistance to moisture and enhances its structural integrity, making it particularly useful for applications requiring long-term durability in humid conditions [38].
Wheat and rice starches, characterized by low molecular weight and low OH absorption, exhibit high biodegradability, making them ideal for short-term applications such as disposable or single-use products. Thermal modification improves their molecular stability while retaining rapid biodegradation, ensuring their suitability for environmentally safe, short-term usage [39].
Pea starch, with high OH absorption, provides excellent water retention properties, making it suitable for flexible films designed for use in humid environments. Thermal modification enhances its moisture resistance and stability, enabling its application in films requiring prolonged durability [40].
The FTIR data also highlight that thermal modification universally improves the structural stability of starches, reducing OH absorption, optimizing molecular distribution, and enhancing chemical stability, consistent with the research findings of Liu Y. et al. [41]. These improvements expand the range of applications for thermally modified starches in biodegradable films.
In conclusion, the choice of starch type and the need for thermal modification depend on the intended application. Starches with high molecular weight, such as cassava and potato, are preferred for long-term use, while wheat and rice starches are more suitable for short-term applications due to their rapid biodegradability. Pea starch offers a balance of flexibility and durability for use in moist environments. Each starch type can be optimized through thermal modification or additives to better meet specific functional requirements in biodegradable film production.

3.3. Thermal Properties with DSC

The DSC analysis results for starches (Figure 2) indicate that cassava starch exhibits a moderate glass transition temperature (50–60 °C) and low melting temperature (120–130 °C), ensuring good material plasticity. After modification, these temperatures increase to 55–65 °C and 125–135 °C, respectively, with decomposition temperatures rising to 290–310 °C, making it more thermally stable. However, additional modifications may be required under high humidity.
Native potato starch demonstrates high glass transition (60–70 °C) and melting temperatures (140–150 °C), reflecting its strength. Modification increases these values to 65–75 °C and 150–160 °C, with decomposition temperatures reaching 280–310 °C. While thermally stable and strong, it may require plasticizers for flexibility.
Wheat starch features high melting (150–160 °C) and glass transition temperatures (55–65 °C), contributing to film strength. After modification, these parameters increase to 60–70 °C and 155–165 °C, enhancing mechanical properties. However, additional treatment might be needed for stability under high humidity.
Corn starch has moderate glass transition (60–75 °C) and melting temperatures (135–145 °C), providing elasticity and transparency. Modification improves these properties, increasing temperatures to 65–80 °C and 140–150 °C, but further adjustments may enhance moisture resistance.
Pea starch has lower glass transition (50–60 °C) and melting temperatures (125–135 °C), limiting thermal stability. After modification, these rise to 55–65 °C and 130–140 °C, improving thermal stability, especially under humid conditions.
Rice starch is notable for its high melting (130–140 °C) and decomposition temperatures (285–310 °C), making it suitable for thermally stable applications. Modification further enhances these properties but may require plasticizers for flexibility. The thermal property results are consistent with the research findings of Liang Wei et al. [20].
In summary, starch modifications enhance thermal and mechanical properties, broadening their applications in biodegradable films. DSC analysis highlights unique strengths and limitations of each starch type [42]. Cassava and corn starches offer good elasticity and transparency for flexible films, pea and rice starches provide water resistance and low hydrophilicity, and potato and wheat starches exhibit balanced mechanical properties ideal for durable films [36].

3.4. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

An analysis of the X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of native and modified starches (cassava, potato, wheat, corn, pea, and rice) revealed key crystalline characteristics. The XRD spectra demonstrated notable differences in the position and intensity of the main peaks, allowing the determination of crystallinity and the impact of thermal modification on physical and mechanical properties [36].
As shown in Figure 3, highly crystalline starches such as potato and corn are characterized by strong peaks in the 2θ range of approximately 17° and 23°, indicating a high degree of molecular order. This structure enhances the material’s strength and stability, making these starches suitable for applications requiring durable films with high mechanical resistance [43]. However, it is important to note that the high crystallinity observed in both native and modified starches may reduce biodegradability, which should be considered when selecting applications [44].
In contrast, moderate- and low-crystallinity starches such as pea and rice exhibit lower peak intensities within these ranges, indicating a less ordered structure. The XRD analysis confirms that while high crystallinity (e.g., in potato and corn starches) improves mechanical properties, it also reduces biodegradation rates. Conversely, low-crystallinity samples (e.g., pea and rice starches) exhibit greater biodegradability, making them more suitable for environmentally friendly and short-term applications [45].

3.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

SEM images of each sample of native starch (cassava, potato, wheat, corn, pea, and rice) provided valuable insights into surface characteristics, granular morphology, and structural features, influencing their suitability for use in biodegradable films. Each type of starch exhibits unique properties, as detailed in Figure 4.
The analysis highlights that cassava, corn, and rice starches, with their smooth and uniform surfaces, are well suited for flexible and esthetically pleasing films, although their strength may vary. Potato starch, characterized by a dense and structured morphology, is ideal for producing strong films but may require plasticizers. Wheat and pea starches, with their porous textures, are optimal for films requiring accelerated biodegradability [46].
This structured understanding, combined with SEM imaging, provides valuable insights into the potential and limitations of different starch types for biodegradable film applications. Each starch type offers specific advantages, from enhanced biodegradability to superior strength and transparency, enabling their tailored use in various sustainable materials.

3.6. Viscosity Analysis (RVA)

Based on the analysis of the rheological properties (RVA) of different starches shown in Figure 5, high-viscosity starches (e.g., potato and corn starch) exhibit high mechanical stability, making them suitable for the preparation of biofilms requiring high strength [47]. Low-viscosity starches (e.g., wheat and rice starch) demonstrate superior biodegradability, making them ideal for short-term applications [48]. Pea starch, due to its excellent thermal stability and strength retention under cold storage conditions, is suitable for film materials in humid environments. Natural starches easily gelatinize at lower temperatures, as evidenced by significant viscosity peaks, while modified starches, due to molecular structure changes, exhibit higher gelatinization temperatures and slightly lower viscosity peaks. Furthermore, the viscosity of modified starches decreases more slowly at high temperatures, indicating remarkable thermal stability. During the cooling stage, modified starches show lower viscosity, reflecting reduced gel reformation ability, making them suitable for long-term storage. Additionally, the smoother viscosity curves of modified starches indicate better adaptability under various conditions. Therefore, modified starches outperform natural starches in terms of thermal stability, viscosity control, and anti-retrogradation properties, making them an ideal choice for high-temperature processing and long-term storage applications, particularly in the production of heat-treated food and industrial materials [49].

3.7. Molecular Weight (MW)

Based on the analysis in Table 4, different types of natural and thermally modified starch exhibit significant variations in molecular weight, polydispersity index (PDI), and characteristics after thermal modification, directly influencing their potential applications in biodegradable films. Starches with high molecular weight and low PDI values, such as cassava and corn starch, maintain stable molecular structures, and after thermal modification, they exhibit a slightly reduced molecular weight but retain low PDI values [50]. These properties ensure excellent mechanical strength and humidity resistance, making them ideal for long-term biodegradable films, such as agricultural mulch films. Medium-molecular-weight starches, such as potato and pea starch, show minor reductions in molecular weight and PDI after thermal modification, resulting in more uniform molecular distribution and improved mechanical properties. These starches are suitable for films requiring moderate strength and flexibility, especially for short-term or seasonal applications. Starches with low molecular weight and a high PDI, such as wheat and rice starch, naturally degrade quickly due to their smaller molecular size. After thermal modification, their PDI decreases moderately, indicating more stable molecular distribution, while retaining high biodegradability. These starches are ideal for disposable or short-term biodegradable films. Thermal modification significantly enhances the stability and moisture resistance of starch while optimizing its mechanical performance. By adjusting thermal modification processes, the application scope of starch in biodegradable materials can be further expanded.

4. Conclusions

This study focused on starches derived from commonly cultivated crops in Kazakhstan, including cassava, potato, corn, wheat, pea, and rice. The physicochemical properties, structural changes, and thermal behavior of both native and thermally modified starches were systematically analyzed, aiming to provide a theoretical foundation and technical basis for the development of biodegradable film materials in Kazakhstan.
The results demonstrated that starches from different botanical sources exhibited unique characteristics in terms of molecular structure, hydrophilicity, thermal properties, and biodegradability. High-molecular-weight starches such as cassava and potato showed excellent film-forming ability and mechanical stability, making them suitable for applications that require strength and durability, such as agricultural films and packaging materials. In contrast, wheat and rice starches, due to their rapid biodegradation, are more appropriate for short-term or single-use biodegradable products. Pea starch, with its flexibility and moderate moisture resistance, is well suited for use in humid environments.
Thermal modification significantly improved the thermal stability of all starch types, raising their glass transition and melting temperatures, reducing hydroxyl group reactivity, and enhancing structural compactness and moisture resistance. FTIR and DSC analyses confirmed the positive effects of thermal treatment on starch molecular structure and performance, validating the feasibility and practical value of this modification approach.
Among all types analyzed, cassava starch stood out for its high amylopectin content, excellent elasticity, and strong film-forming capacity. After thermal modification, it showed significantly enhanced thermal stability and mechanical strength, making it a promising primary material for biodegradable films. Potato starch also exhibited outstanding water-binding capacity and structural integrity, especially after modification, although its brittleness may require the incorporation of plasticizers to improve flexibility.
In conclusion, starches commonly available in Kazakhstan, particularly cassava and potato starches, hold strong potential for the development of biodegradable, eco-friendly film materials. This study offers a practical pathway for the high-value utilization of local starch resources and supports the advancement of a sustainable materials industry. It also lays the foundation for future research focusing on advanced formulation techniques, synergistic modification with functional additives, and the scale-up of industrial production.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.M. and G.O.; methodology, K.Z., Y.Y., K.S. and D.T.; software, D.K., Y.Y. and Y.Z.; validation, S.S. and K.A.; formal analysis, M.M., I.T. and A.S.; investigation, K.S., D.T., I.T., A.S. and D.K.; resources, Y.Z. and G.O.; data curation, D.K., I.T. and A.S.; writing—original draft preparation, M.M. and K.Z.; writing—review and editing, M.M.; visualization, A.S. and I.T.; supervision, G.O.; funding acquisition, G.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan, grant number BR22883587 “Improvement and development of high-tech technologies for deep processing of agricultural raw materials to strengthen food security in the Republic of Kazakhstan”.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Applsci 15 03938 g001
Figure 1. FTIR spectra of starch analysis (CSN—cassava native starch samples, CSM—cassava modified starch samples, PSN—potato native starch samples, PSM—potato modified starch samples, WSN—wheat native starch samples, WSM—wheat modified starch samples, CoSN—corn native starch samples, CoSM—corn modified starch samples, PeSN—pea native starch samples, PeSM—pea modified starch samples, RSN—rice native starch samples, RSM—rice modified starch samples.).
Figure 1. FTIR spectra of starch analysis (CSN—cassava native starch samples, CSM—cassava modified starch samples, PSN—potato native starch samples, PSM—potato modified starch samples, WSN—wheat native starch samples, WSM—wheat modified starch samples, CoSN—corn native starch samples, CoSM—corn modified starch samples, PeSN—pea native starch samples, PeSM—pea modified starch samples, RSN—rice native starch samples, RSM—rice modified starch samples.).
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Figure 2. Comparison of DSC curves of various starches.
Figure 2. Comparison of DSC curves of various starches.
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Figure 3. X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of various starches.
Figure 3. X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of various starches.
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Applsci 15 03938 g004aApplsci 15 03938 g004b
Figure 4. SEM images of various starches: CSN—cassava native starch samples, CSM—cassava modified starch samples, PSN—potato native starch samples, PSM—potato modified starch samples, WSN—wheat native starch samples, WSM—wheat modified starch samples, CoSN—corn native starch samples, CoSM—corn modified starch samples, PeSN—pea native starch samples, PeSM—pea modified starch samples, RSN—rice native starch samples, RSM—rice modified starch samples.
Figure 4. SEM images of various starches: CSN—cassava native starch samples, CSM—cassava modified starch samples, PSN—potato native starch samples, PSM—potato modified starch samples, WSN—wheat native starch samples, WSM—wheat modified starch samples, CoSN—corn native starch samples, CoSM—corn modified starch samples, PeSN—pea native starch samples, PeSM—pea modified starch samples, RSN—rice native starch samples, RSM—rice modified starch samples.
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Figure 5. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis (CSN—cassava native starch samples, CSM—cassava modified starch samples, PSN—potato native starch samples, PSM—potato modified starch samples, WSN—wheat native starch samples, WSM—wheat modified starch samples, CoSN—corn native starch samples, CoSM—corn modified starch samples, PeSN—pea native starch samples, PeSM—pea modified starch samples, RSN— rice native starch samples, RSM—rice modified starch samples).
Figure 5. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis (CSN—cassava native starch samples, CSM—cassava modified starch samples, PSN—potato native starch samples, PSM—potato modified starch samples, WSN—wheat native starch samples, WSM—wheat modified starch samples, CoSN—corn native starch samples, CoSM—corn modified starch samples, PeSN—pea native starch samples, PeSM—pea modified starch samples, RSN— rice native starch samples, RSM—rice modified starch samples).
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Table 1. Raw materials and their production regions.
Table 1. Raw materials and their production regions.
Raw MaterialVarietyProduction Region
PotatoGalaEast Kazakhstan
WheatSteklovidnaya-24North Kazakhstan
CornAltyn DanAlmaty Region
PeaZhambyl 8Zhambyl Region
RiceMarzhanKyzylorda Region
CassavaCassava 531South Kazakhstan
Table 2. Chemical properties of natural starches %.
Table 2. Chemical properties of natural starches %.
StarchAmylose ContentAmylopectin ContentWater Content Mineral Content
Potato20–3070–8012–140.2–0.3
Wheat25–2872–7511–130.3–0.4
Corn24–2872–7610–120.1–0.2
Pea30–3565–7011–130.2–0.3
Rice18–2080–8212–140.1–0.2
Cassava17–2476–8310–120.1–0.2
Table 3. The mineral composition of various types of native starches mg/kg.
Table 3. The mineral composition of various types of native starches mg/kg.
MineralCassava Starch Potato Starch Wheat StarchCorn Starch Pea Starch Rice Starch
Zn0.48 ± 0.042.6 ± 0.082.63 ± 1.661.3 ± 0.062.3 ± 0.091.0 ± 0.16
Mg4307 ± 392107 ± 441390 ± 99867 ± 42.41757 ± 26722.5 ± 52.1
Fe12.6 ± 0.216.5 ± 0.42.65 ± 2.05.5 ± 0.0822.8 ± 1.14.6 ± 0.18
Ca25.9 ± 2.2300 ± 5.3299.8 ± 8.7210.6 ± 3.1250 ± 3.3160.6 ± 1.1
Se12.1 ± 0.63.3 ± 0.06-1.2 ± 0.032.75 ± 0.161.0 ± 0.5
Table 4. Analysis of molecular characteristics and observations of different starch samples for biodegradable films.
Table 4. Analysis of molecular characteristics and observations of different starch samples for biodegradable films.
StarchAverage Molecular Weight (kDa)Polydispersity Index (PDI)Retention Time of Main Peak (min)Observations
Cassava, natural5001.512.5High amylopectin content; large molecules indicated by an early peak.
Cassava, modified4801.412.3Stable molecular structure with improved humidity resistance.
Potato, natural4501.413.0Medium molecular weight with dense distribution.
Potato, modified4301.313.2Lower PDI enhances stability and mechanical properties.
Wheat, natural3202.015.2Broad distribution, likely related to the ratio of amylose and amylopectin.
Wheat, modified3101.815.0Moderate reduction in PDI improves stability and biodegradability.
Corn, natural4701.312.8Consistent molecular size with low PDI, suitable for strong film formation.
Corn, modified4551.212.6Low PDI and high molecular weight provide excellent mechanical properties.
Pea, natural3501.714.5Medium molecular size with moderate polydispersity.
Pea, modified3401.614.3Lower PDI enhances resistance to external factors.
Rice, natural3002.115.5High polydispersity; smaller molecules ideal for rapid degradation.
Rice, modified2901.915.4Moderate polydispersity supports high biodegradation rates.
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Muratkhan, M.; Zhainagul, K.; Yermekov, Y.; Svetlana, K.; Toimbayeva, D.; Temirova, I.; Amirsana, K.; Khamitova, D.; Zharykbasov, Y.; Sugirbay, A.; et al. Comparable Analysis of Natural and Modified Starches from Kazakhstan: Physicochemical Properties, Applications, and Insights on Biodegradable Films. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 3938. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073938

AMA Style

Muratkhan M, Zhainagul K, Yermekov Y, Svetlana K, Toimbayeva D, Temirova I, Amirsana K, Khamitova D, Zharykbasov Y, Sugirbay A, et al. Comparable Analysis of Natural and Modified Starches from Kazakhstan: Physicochemical Properties, Applications, and Insights on Biodegradable Films. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(7):3938. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073938

Chicago/Turabian Style

Muratkhan, Marat, Kakimova Zhainagul, Yernaz Yermekov, Kamanova Svetlana, Dana Toimbayeva, Indira Temirova, Kiykbay Amirsana, Dina Khamitova, Yerlan Zharykbasov, Adilet Sugirbay, and et al. 2025. "Comparable Analysis of Natural and Modified Starches from Kazakhstan: Physicochemical Properties, Applications, and Insights on Biodegradable Films" Applied Sciences 15, no. 7: 3938. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073938

APA Style

Muratkhan, M., Zhainagul, K., Yermekov, Y., Svetlana, K., Toimbayeva, D., Temirova, I., Amirsana, K., Khamitova, D., Zharykbasov, Y., Sugirbay, A., Saule, S., & Ospankulova, G. (2025). Comparable Analysis of Natural and Modified Starches from Kazakhstan: Physicochemical Properties, Applications, and Insights on Biodegradable Films. Applied Sciences, 15(7), 3938. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073938

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