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Article

Optimized Quaternary Binder Systems for Sustainable High-Performance Concrete: Insights from Taguchi Design

by
Tan-Khoa Nguyen
1,
Khanh-Dung Tran Thi
2,
Duy-Hai Vo
1,* and
Woubishet Zewdu Taffese
3,*
1
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Technology and Education, The University of Danang, 48 Cao Thang Street, Hai Chau District, Danang 550000, Vietnam
2
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 43, Sec. 4, Keelung Rd., Taipei 10607, Taiwan
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Aalto University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(24), 12864; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152412864
Submission received: 1 October 2025 / Revised: 28 November 2025 / Accepted: 2 December 2025 / Published: 5 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Advances in Cement and Concrete Composites: 2nd Edition)
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Abstract

The use of high-volume industrial by-products in high-performance concrete (HPC) production offers a promising and sustainable strategy for reducing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) consumption. However, each pozzolanic material has a unique chemical composition and physical characteristics, making ternary and quaternary binder systems an effective approach for optimizing performance. In this study, quaternary binders comprising OPC partially replaced with Class F fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), and silica fume (SF) were designed using the Taguchi method, and the mechanical and durability properties of fine-grained HPC were evaluated. Sixteen concrete mixtures were developed considering three factors—FA, GGBFS, and SF replacement levels—each at four dosage levels. The results show that incorporating SF significantly enhanced both mechanical performance and durability. An optimal blend containing 60% OPC, 30% GGBFS, and 10% SF exhibited superior performance compared with the 100% OPC control mix. Additionally, a mixture of 40% OPC, 40% GGBFS, 10% Class F FA, and 10% SF achieved comparable compressive strength to the control, exceeding 100 MPa at 28 days. SEM observations confirmed the dense microstructure of this HPC mix. ANOVA analysis indicated that FA and SF had a significantly greater influence on HPC strength development than GGBFS. Overall, these findings demonstrate the potential of high-volume industrial by-products to produce fine-grained HPC, providing a high-performance and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional OPC-based concrete.

1. Introduction

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) remains the most widely used binder in concrete production. However, its production process involves the thermal disintegration of carbonates, such as limestone, alongside the combustion of coal at elevated temperatures of approximately 1500 °C [1]. It has been reported that the production of every ton of OPC releases 0.73–0.85 tons of CO2 [2]. The CO2 emissions from OPC manufacturing are reported to contribute 5–7% of total global CO2 emissions [3], with the majority of these emissions arising from two main sources: the decomposition of limestone and the combustion of fuel during production. Consequently, substantial research has focused on reducing OPC content by partially or fully replacing it with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). SCMs such as fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), metakaolin, rice husk ash, and silica fume (SF) have been widely studied [4,5,6,7]. Partial OPC replacement with SCMs conserves natural resources, lowers CO2 emissions, and improves durability through pozzolanic reactions that generate secondary C–S–H, refining the microstructure of the hardened matrix [8,9,10].
FA is a byproduct generated from coal-fired power stations [11] and is typically classified as Class C or Class F depending on CaO content. Class C FA, with high CaO, exhibits both cementitious and pozzolanic behavior [12], while class F FA, with lower CaO content, functions solely as a pozzolanic material [13,14]. FA has commonly been used at replacement levels of 15% to 35% of the total cementitious material in concrete [6,11,14], offering benefits such as improving workability, reducing the heat of hydration and the risk of thermal cracking in early-age concrete, and significantly improving mechanical and durability properties over time [15]. Similarly, GGBFS, a by-product of steel manufacturing, is another widely used SCM. It is predominantly amorphous and rich in SiO2 and CaO, contributing to both cementitious and pozzolanic reactions during OPC hydration [16,17,18]. Partial replacement of GGBFS for cement from 30 to 60% has been shown to enhance strength throughout the long curing durations [19]. Another commonly used SCM is SF, a highly refined pozzolanic substance, primarily consisting of amorphous silica generated by electric arc furnaces in the manufacturing of elemental silicon or ferro-silicon alloys [20]. It is utilized in concrete to enhance compressive strength, bond strength, and abrasion resistance, while simultaneously reducing permeability and aiding in the protection of reinforcing steel from corrosion [21,22]. Nonetheless, there exists a threshold beyond which the incorporation of SF adversely impacts the performance of cementitious composites. The investigation of mechanical properties indicated that the ideal amount of SF typically fell between 7.5% and 12% [23,24].
High-performance concrete (HPC) is a class of concrete designed to exhibit superior mechanical strength, durability, and workability compared to conventional concrete. HPC generally produces compressive strengths above 70 MPa. It typically incorporates a low water-to-binder (w/b) ratio, ranging from 0.14 to 0.20, high-quality aggregates, and SCMs such as FA, SF, and GGBFS [25,26,27,28]. However, the use of high volumes of a single SCM can significantly reduce the early-age properties and durability of concrete samples. For instance, C.S. Poon et al. [29] reported that incorporating 45% FA into concrete mixtures led to a strength reduction of over 8%, whereas Watcharapong Wongkeo et al. [30] observed a more substantial decline in strength, ranging from about 21% to 46%, when 50–70% of OPC was replaced by FA. Mohamed Elchalakani et al. [31] investigated 13 different concrete mix designs incorporating high volumes of GGBFS, with GGBFS replacing OPC at levels of 50%, 60%, 70%, and 80%. The results showed a reduction in compressive strength of approximately 8–11% compared to pure OPC concrete, indicating a slight impact of high-volume GGBFS on strength development. These findings highlight the importance of balanced binary or ternary SCM combinations to maintain or enhance both strength and durability performance, even with less than 50% OPC [32,33].
Determining optimal mix proportions, however, typically necessitates comprehensive testing, which can be both time-consuming and resource-intensive. Therefore, the use of an effective optimization technique becomes crucial for efficiently identifying ideal mix proportions that ensure high performance while reducing the number of required trials [34,35]. One of the methods that can be used to address this issue is the Taguchi method, an optimization methodology that examines the effects of multiple parameters while minimizing the number of mixes conducted [36]. It can also recommend the optimal material proportions that result in low-cement-content mixtures, while ensuring the concrete samples maintain satisfactory quality.
This study aims to investigate the effects of high-volume ternary by-products—including GGBFS, FA, and SF—on the mechanical properties and durability of fine-grained HPC, using a Taguchi-based optimization approach. A total of sixteen fine-grained concrete mixtures were prepared with varying replacement levels of OPC, ranging from 25% to 70% by weight, using different proportions of SCMs. The effects of three parameters (GGBFS, FA, and SF), each at four levels, were evaluated. The performance of the mixtures was assessed in terms of fresh characteristics, compressive strength, rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT), and porosity. The shape and microstructure of this optimal mixture were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). By using the Taguchi method, optimal levels for the mix proportion were suggested to achieve high-performance concrete.

2. Materials and Experimental Methods

2.1. Materials

The materials employed in this study were carefully selected to ensure reproducibility and compliance with established standards, enabling others to replicate the experimental process with confidence. Type I OPC conforming to ASTM C150 [37] was used as the primary binder. As shown in Figure 1, SEM images of the raw materials indicate that FA particles possess a predominantly spherical morphology, whereas the other binders exhibit irregular particle shapes. The physical properties and chemical compositions of all binders are summarized in Table 1, with SCM chemistries determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. Local tap water was used as the mixing water in all mixtures. A Sika Visconcrete 8490 superplasticizer type F conforming to ASTM C494 [38] (SP) was added to the concrete mixtures to enhance workability. Natural sand conforming to ASTM C33 [39] specifications was employed as the fine aggregate. The particle size distribution of the sand is presented in Table 2.

2.2. Mixtures Design

The Taguchi method, developed in the 1950s, is an optimization technique that improves performance and reduces cost by minimizing the effects of variability, or “noise factors”. This method uses signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios to evaluate performance under goals like “larger-the-better” or “smaller-the-better”. It efficiently tests multiple variables with fewer experiments through orthogonal arrays, ensuring robust and reliable designs [40].
In this study, to achieve high compressive strength for the fine-grained HPC, parameters such as cement content and SCMs replacement ratios were very crucial. Another critical target while seeking the superior compressive strength was to minimize the cement content so that the mix design could be made more economical and environmentally friendly. Fine-grained HPC mixture proportions were designed using the Taguchi method, specifying three factors: GGBFS, FA, and SF ratios as substitutes for OPC. Based on the literature review, FA was used at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%, while SF was used at 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% by weight [41]. The amount of GGBFS was 0%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by OPC weight [42]. These factor levels are summarized in Table 3, and the detailed mix proportions are provided in Table 4. To explore the combined effects of these SCMs, a Taguchi L16 orthogonal array was selected, enabling a comprehensive evaluation of their interactions through only 16 experimental runs. The design was based on the standard L16 array for three factors, each considered at four levels [43].
All mixtures were designed with a total binder content of 1000 kg/m3, and the sand-to-binder ratio was kept constant at 1.25 by mass. A low w/b ratio of 0.17 was employed to achieve high performance characteristics of the mixes. To ensure workability despite the low w/b ratio, a SP dosage of 1.7% by binder weight was used. The SP used was Sika® ViscoCrete®-8490, Sika Vietnam, Danang, Viet Nam, for which the recommended dosage from the supplier ranged from 0.54 to 2.17%, and 1 g of SP can reduce up to 14 g of water.

2.3. Mixing Process and Testing Method

The sample preparation process is illustrated in Figure 2. The OPC, GGBFS, FA, and SF were dried–mixed for two minutes to attain uniformity. The fine aggregates were subsequently included in the ternary mixes and blended for roughly three minutes. Subsequently, the mixing water and SP were steadily introduced and blended at medium speed for an additional three minutes. To achieve consistent consistency, the speed was increased to high for one minute, followed by an additional minute of mixing at medium speed to eliminate air bubbles and produce a homogeneous matrix. The mixes were then cast into molds measuring 40 mm × 40 mm × 40 mm for compressive strength tests. For porosity and RCPT, samples were prepared using cylinder molds of 100 mm × 200 mm and subsequently sliced into specimens measuring 100 mm × 50 mm. All the samples, coated with a thin plastic coating, were kept at a room temperature of 25 ± 2 °C for 24 h prior to demolding. The samples were ultimately cured in lime-saturated water until they attained their specified testing ages.
The fresh fine-grained concretes were assessed for slump and unit weight in accordance with ASTM C143 [44] and ASTM C138 [45] standards. Compressive strength was measured on 40 mm × 40 mm × 40 mm hardened cubes at 7, 28, and 91 days following Vietnamese Standard TCVN 6016:2011, while RCPT was determined at 91 days in accordance with ASTM C1202 [46]. The water absorption porosity of the fine-grained HPC specimens (50 mm thick, 100 mm diameter) was assessed at 91 days following ASTM C1403 [47] and the procedures proposed by Chindaprasirt and Rukzon [48,49], using a four-step testing sequence:
(1)
Soaking samples in distilled water for 24 h to saturate them;
(2)
Measuring the suspended weight in water (W1);
(3)
Recording the saturated surface-dried weight (W2);
(4)
Oven-drying specimens at 105 ± 5 °C until constant weight to obtain the dry weight (W3).
Porosity P(%) was then calculated using the following equation:
P(%) = [(W2 − W3)/(W2 − W1)] × 100%
All tests were performed in triplicate to ensure precision and reliability, and the reported values represent the average of the three measurements.
For microstructural analysis, small pieces of concrete samples were submerged in anhydrous ethanol to prevent hydration. These fragments were then subjected to vacuum treatment and subsequently coated with platinum for scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Imaging was conducted using a JEOL model JSM-7900 SEM to obtain precise microstructural characteristics of the samples.
Figure 3 illustrates the flow chart process describing the experimental procedure and optimization process in this study.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Fresh Properties

3.1.1. Slump

The flowability of the fresh fine-grained HPC containing varied GGBFS, FA, and SF content is shown in Figure 4. The flowability ranged from 215 mm to 328 mm. As can be seen from this figure, the primary factors that enhanced flowability were the FA and GGBFS content, in which the FA content has a bit more significant influence on these properties. The increase in FA from 0 to 30% could raise the mean flowability from 246.5 mm to 300.3 mm. It could be attributed to the spherical shape of FA particles that can act like ball bearings to reduce the inter-particle friction between the cement grains [50]. Meanwhile, the considerable workability of the concrete mixtures can also be observed with the increase in GGBFS partial substitution for OPC. The smooth and glassy texture of GGBFS particles reduces water absorption, thereby facilitating increased slump [51]. Conversely, increased SF content generally diminished flowability. While a modest SF content of 5% sometimes resulted in a slight improvement in slump—possibly due to synergistic effects with FA or GGBFS—higher SF dosages consistently diminished workability. This behavior is linked to SF’s large SSA and very fine particle size, as shown in Table 1, which increases water demand and consequently decreases fresh concrete flow [52].

3.1.2. Unit Weight

Figure 5 demonstrates the influence of FA, GGBFS, and SF on the unit weight of the concrete mixtures. As shown in the figure, the unit weight reduced with the increased FA content due to the low specific gravity of FA (2.2) compared to other raw materials. On the other hand, it can be noted that the slight increase in GGBFS up to 20%, or the minor increase in SF up to 5% resulted in the slight increase in unit weight of the concrete mixture. This can be explained by the filling effect caused by GGFBS and SF, with SF having a more pronounced filling effect due to its spherical particle shape, which improves packing efficiency more than FA or GGBFS [53]. However, when the GGBFS or SF content increased beyond these levels, the unit weight of the concrete mixture decreased. This reduction is due to the lower density of GGBFS and SF compared to OPC. Notably, the unit weight decreased more significantly with SF than with GGBFS, as SF has an even lower density than GGBFS.

3.2. Compressive Strength

When mixed with water, OPC reacted with water to produce calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel, the primary binding component, and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). Due to its ultrafine particle size, SF acted as a micro-filler in the early stages, packing tightly between the larger cement grains. This accelerated the cement hydration by providing additional nucleation sites for C-S-H gel formation. SF also exhibited high pozzolanic activity in the mixes, positively affecting the compressive strength. The amorphous silica (SiO2) present in SF reacted with Ca(OH)2 generated during cement hydration through a pozzolanic reaction, forming additional C-S-H. This secondary C-S-H formation enhanced the microstructure and overall strength of the hardened concrete [54]. Both SF and FA were pozzolanic materials; thus, they reacted with the Ca(OH)2 released by the OPC hydration. These reactions consumed the weak and water-soluble Ca(OH)2 and converted it into an additional, stronger C-S-H gel. This continued throughout the long-term curing process. Because of its higher reactivity and much finer particle size, SF’s pozzolanic reaction was faster and more significant in the early stages, while FA’s reaction was slower and provided more long-term strength. GGBFS, on the other hand, was a latent hydraulic material and a pozzolanic material. Its reactions occurred more slowly than those of cement [55,56], and also produced a C-(A)-S-H gel that mainly contributed to the improvement of the concrete’s later-age strength.
When combined in the mixtures, these materials did not act independently; instead, they enhanced each other’s performance. SF contributed to early strength through its micro-filling effect and rapid pozzolanic reaction. Over the long term, slower-reacting materials like GGBFS and FA continued to form secondary binding gels, resulting in higher ultimate strength than the concrete produced solely from OPC. However, when the OPC content was too low, the Ca(OH)2 produced was not sufficient to induce the pozzolanic reactions, leading to a higher amount of unhydrated particles and consequently, a reduction in compressive strength.
The compressive strengths of the concrete at 7 days, 28 days, and 91 days are displayed in Figure 6. In addition, Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9 further illustrate the effects of each SCM on the compressive strength of the concrete samples across different curing periods. As expected, the compressive strength of the concrete increased with curing time due to the gradual densification of the matrix by hydrates produced from the hydration reaction of the cement and SCMs. Between 7 and 28 days, the rate of strength gain ranged from 4.0% to 22.2%, while after 28 days, the rate decreased significantly to between 0.5% and 6.9%. Previous studies indicated that these SCMs reacted with portlandite generated during OPC hydration to form additional calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel, thereby contributing to strength development [57]. Generally, the replacement of OPC with GGBFS does not exceed 50% by mass in order to preserve adequate 28-day strength and durability, while FA is commonly limited to below 35% [11]. SF is often added in amounts less than 8%, though it can be used up to 12.5% or more in certain applications [6]. Although SCMs are generally recognized for improving concrete strength and durability, the reductions observed in this study were likely due to the high replacement levels of OPC, which may exceed the optimal thresholds for maintaining compressive performance.
As can be seen from Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8, the compressive strength tended to decrease with increasing amounts of FA and GGBFS, or when the SF content exceeded 10%. The relatively limited reactivity of FA compared to OPC, GGBFS, and SF [6,58] likely resulted in the notable reduction in compressive strength in mixtures with higher FA content. GGBFS also caused some strength loss when used as a partial OPC replacement, though the effect was less pronounced than that of FA [59]. In addition, the high replacement level of SCMs reduced the content of OPC, thereby limiting the formation of calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] during hydration. This reduction in Ca(OH)2 availability constrained the pozzolanic reaction of the SCMs, ultimately resulting in the decreased compressive strength of the concrete specimens. The synergistic interaction among SCMs, however, improved strength levels. As shown in Figure 6, the control OPC mixture performed a 28-day compressive strength of approximately 102.6 MPa. Mix S5, which contained 85% OPC, 10% FA, 0% GGBFS, and 5% SF, performed a compressive strength that was higher by 1.5% compared to the OPC mixtures. Meanwhile, mix S8, with only 40% OPC, 10% FA, 40% GGBFS, and 10% SF, exhibited a slightly higher strength, outperforming the control mix by 2.2%. These results demonstrate that substantial OPC reductions, replaced by optimized SCM blends, can deliver environmental benefits without compromising mechanical performance.
As aforementioned, GGBFS contributed to both cementitious and pozzolanic reactions during the hydration of OPC. FA enhanced the strength of the mixtures by (1) providing high pozzolanic activity that generated additional hydration products, and (2) promoting its own pozzolanic reaction through filler and seeding effects [14,60]. SF, with finer particles and amorphous content, contributed to strength enhancement through both chemical reactions with Ca(OH)2, forming additional C–S–H, and a micro-filler effect that improved particle packing [61]. Mixes containing 10% SF and retaining 60–70% OPC consistently showed the highest compressive strengths throughout the curing period.
Among mixes with 10% SF, increasing FA content corresponded to lower strengths, highlighting FA’s relatively lower reactivity. The addition of SF expedites the hydration process, which is hindered at lower w/b ratios. However, SF also consumes water and creates agglomerates, leading to a fast decrease in free water for cement hydration [23]. Consequently, when SF content exceeded an optimal threshold, compressive strength began to decline. It is also worth noting that most of the mixtures achieved compressive strengths exceeding 100 MPa, demonstrating performance comparable to that of pure OPC concrete.

3.3. Porosity

Water absorption porosity is a key microstructural parameter that strongly influences the mechanical and durability properties of concrete. Figure 10 illustrates the porosity of high-performance fine-grained concrete at 91 days. The water absorption porosity of the concrete samples varied between 1.24 and 2.46%, decreasing with the increasing replacement of OPC by GGBFS and FA, which can be explained by the fact that more porous concretes have a less dense matrix, which weakens the overall structure. Although the inclusion of GGBFS and FA reduced OPC content and theoretically should have enhanced the long-term matrix refinement through pozzolanic activity, their relatively lower reactivity compared to OPC resulted in the slower development of hydration products [58]. This delayed reaction led to the presence of unreacted particles and increased the amount of permeable voids in the concrete, thereby elevating the porosity of the samples containing higher proportions of FA and GGBFS. In contrast, the incorporation of SF had a significant densifying effect on the concrete matrix. Due to its ultrafine particle size, SF acted as a micro-filler, effectively filling voids between cement particles and reducing capillary porosity. Moreover, its high pozzolanic reactivity enabled it to rapidly react with the Ca(OH)2 released during OPC hydration, forming additional C–S–H gel and further densifying the matrix [61]. This dual effect, both physical and chemical, contributed to a substantial reduction in porosity, particularly when SF was used at optimal levels. Thus, while GGBFS and FA have potential long-term benefits for durability, their high replacement levels in this study may have exceeded the optimal range for microstructural improvement, especially within the 91-day curing period. Meanwhile, the positive impact of SF on porosity aligned well with the observed enhancements in compressive strength, reinforcing the importance of balanced SCM proportions in high-performance concrete design. However, it also consumed available free water for cement hydration by forming agglomerates, especially at low w/b ratios [23], thus creating more porosity in the mortar matrix.

3.4. RCPT

RCPT is a widely used indicator of concrete’s resistance to chloride ion penetration, which is critical for assessing durability, especially in structures exposed to marine environments. Figure 11 illustrates the impact of FA, GGBFS, and SF on the RCPT of the concrete mixtures at 91 days. As evident from the figure, the incorporation of SCMs significantly reduced the RCPT values compared to the control mix, composed solely of OPC. At 91 days, all concrete specimens exhibited excellent chloride ion penetration resistance, as indicated by RCPT values below 600 Coulombs. According to Sengui et al. [62], SCMs influenced concrete through two primary mechanisms: the pozzolanic effect and the filler effect. The pozzolanic effect involved the chemical reaction between the SCMs and Ca(OH)2, a byproduct of OPC hydration. This reaction produced additional C–S–H, which filled capillary pores and contributed to matrix densification. Meanwhile, the filler effect occurred when the fine particles of SCMs physically occupied voids within the mix, improving particle packing and reducing pore connectivity. In particular, concrete mixes containing optimal proportions of SF demonstrated the lowest RCPT values, indicating a highly impermeable matrix. The incorporation of SF has been widely recognized in the literature as the most effective strategy for improving resistance to chloride ion penetration, primarily due to its ability to partially obstruct transport pathways [63], refine pore size and distribution [64], and enhance the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) [65], among other mechanisms. As aforementioned, high SF dosage may cause particle agglomeration and increase porosity in the mortar matrix, thereby slightly elevating RCPT values. Furthermore, while high-volume replacement with SCMs did not fully contribute to the pozzolanic reaction, their physical filling effect improved the microstructure, thereby reducing chloride ion transport and enhancing the resistance of the concrete specimens to chloride penetration.

3.5. SEM/EDS

Figure 12 illustrates the SEM images of fine-grained HPC S1, S3, S9, and S16 with varied FA, GGBFS, and SF contents at 28 days. The SEM analysis revealed that the dense microstructure observed in the four mixtures correlates with the previously indicated high compressive strength values. The SEM images of mixtures S1, S3, and S9 revealed compact and homogeneously distributed hydration products with minor visible pores. These features are indicative of a well-developed microstructure, consistent with the high compressive strength values recorded for these mixes at the same curing age. The dense matrix observed was largely attributed to the synergistic effects of SCMs in enhancing particle packing and producing additional C–S–H gel through pozzolanic reactions. In particular, the presence of SF significantly refined the pore structure, acting both as a micro-filler and as a highly reactive pozzolan that consumed Ca(OH)2 to form more C–S–H, thus contributing to strength gain and matrix densification.
In contrast, the SEM image of mixture S16 displayed a less compact microstructure, characterized by visible voids and a higher presence of unhydrated particles. This could have been caused by incomplete or delayed hydration processes, likely due to excessive replacement levels of OPC with less reactive SCMs such as FA. As previously discussed, FA reacts more slowly compared to OPC, GGBFS, and SF, and when used in higher quantities, can result in reduced early-age reactivity and consequently, a more porous matrix. This microstructural deficiency explains the relatively lower compressive strength observed in S16, despite the potential long-term benefits of FA in improving durability. Moreover, the unhydrated particles visible in S16 may also indicate suboptimal mix proportions that hindered full hydration. These observations reinforce the importance of optimizing the replacement levels and balance between different SCMs to ensure adequate hydration and a dense microstructure.

3.6. Discussion

The contribution of FA, GGBFS, and SF levels to the compressive strength of fine-grained HPC at 28 days was rigorously assessed through analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Minitab R 18.1 based on the experimental data from 16 distinct mix designs. This statistical approach allowed for a systematic assessment of how each SCM contributed to the strength development at 28 days.
Table 5 presents the ANOVA results, offering valuable insight into the individual and collective effects of the SCMs. The Degrees of Freedom (DF) represent the number of independent values that can vary without violating model constraints, offering insight into the complexity of each term. The sum of squares (SS) represents how far data points deviate from the mean value. A higher value suggests greater variation in the data, while a smaller value shows that the data points are more closely clustered around the mean. The Adjusted Sum of Squares (Adj SS) quantifies the amount of variation each factor explains in the response variable, while accounting for the presence of other predictors. This is further normalized through the Adjusted Mean Square (Adj MS), obtained by dividing the Adj SS by the corresponding DF, providing an average measure of variation explained per degree of freedom. The F-Value serves as a critical test statistic, indicating the ratio of variance explained by a specific factor to the unexplained (residual) variance—higher values typically point to more influential factors. Finally, the p-Value reveals the statistical significance of each term, with values below 0.05 denoting a meaningful influence on the response variable [66].
From the analysis, it was evident that FA and SF contents significantly impacted the 28-day compressive strength, as both exhibited p-values below 0.05. In contrast, the effect of GGBFS was not statistically significant, with a p-value exceeding 0.05. The respective contributions of FA, GGBFS, and SF to the total variance in compressive strength were 41.25%, 10.97%%, and 34.47%, respectively. These values indicate the percentage of the total variation in compressive strength that can be attributed to changes in the respective SCM contents, suggesting that FA content played a dominant role in influencing the strength outcomes of the studied mixtures. The low reactivity of FA can lead to a significant loss in fine-grained HPC; therefore, the content of this SCM should be limited to maintain the strength of the fine-grained HPC. GGBFS, on the other hand, even being used at 40%, still resulted in a slight reduction in strength, indicating that this SCM was more reactive and participated effectively in hydrate generation. Additionally, SF, due to its finer particles and amorphous silica content, when utilized up to the optimal level, can significantly enhance the fine-grained HPC’s compressive strength; however, exceeding this level results in a considerable reduction in this contribution.
To evaluate the stability and performance of the response, the General Linear Model (GLM) was initially employed to estimate the major effects of each factor. The model demonstrated a strong fit for capturing the main effects, making it a valuable tool for preliminary analysis. However, the shortcoming of this approach lies in its inability to effectively capture complex interactions between factors. To address this shortcoming and provide a more robust representation of the system behavior, a quadratic regression model was subsequently developed.
The equations were constructed using Minitab software in two steps:
○
Step 1 (Full model—Table 6):
First, we constructed a full quadratic regression model, including all possible main effects and interactions, based on 16 experimental data points.
○
Step 2 (Reduced model—Table 7):
To ensure the model’s compactness and statistical significance, we applied the Stepwise Regression method. Variables with a p-value> 0.05 (not statistically significant) were systematically removed. The final equation in Table 7 retained only statistically significant predictor variables (p < 0.05) to optimize prediction accuracy.
Table 7. Final Regression Analysis: 28-day compressive strength versus FA (%). GGBFS (%). SF (%).
Table 7. Final Regression Analysis: 28-day compressive strength versus FA (%). GGBFS (%). SF (%).
Analysis of Variance
SourceDFAdj SSAdj MSF-Valuep-Value
Regression4207.9351.98113.280.000
 FA (%)194.8394.83024.220.000
 GGBFS (%)126.2726.2746.710.025
 SF (%)181.3581.34820.780.001
 SF (%) × SF (%)163.6063.60116.250.002
Error1143.063.915
Total15250.99
Model Summary
SR-sqR-sq(adj)R-sq(pred)
1.9786182.84%76.60%66.59%
Coefficients
TermCoefSE CoefT-Valuep-ValueVIF
Constant103.211.3974.170.000
FA (%)−0.21780.0442−4.920.0001.00
GGBFS (%)−0.08660.0334−2.590.0251.00
SF (%)1.4120.3104.560.00112.25
SF (%) × SF (%)−0.07980.0198−4.030.00212.25
Regression Equation
Rn28-day = 103.21 − 0.2178 FA (%) − 0.0866 GGBFS (%) + 1.412 SF (%) − 0.0798 SF (%) × SF (%)
Fits and Diagnostics for Unusual Observations
ObsRn28-dayFitResidStd Resid
1497.00101.09−4.09−2.s39R
Despite the initial inclusion of quadratic and interaction terms in the regression model, the statistical analysis revealed that several of these terms—namely FA(%) × FA(%), GGBFS(%) × GGBFS(%), FA(%) × GGBFS(%), and FA(%) × SF(%)—exhibited p-values exceeding 0.05, indicating they were statistically insignificant contributors to the response. To enhance model parsimony and interpretability, these terms were systematically eliminated through a stepwise regression procedure, wherein variables were retained in order of their statistical significance and contribution to model fit. The refined model resulting from this iterative selection process is summarized in Table 7. While this streamlines and effectively predicts the response variable, it still does not adequately capture the interactive effects between factors.
The CO2 emissions associated with each concrete mixture were evaluated based on the quantities of raw materials used in the mix designs and the corresponding emission factors reported in the literature [67,68]. The assessment was normalized per unit of mechanical performance by calculating emissions per 1 MPa of 28-day compressive strength. This approach reflects the environmental efficiency of each mixture, considering not only the absolute emissions but also how effectively the concrete performs structurally. As illustrated in Table 8 and Table 9, all the proposed concrete mixtures incorporating the SCMs resulted in significantly lower CO2 emissions compared to the reference mix made with 100% OPC. This reduction in emissions is primarily attributed to the partial replacement of OPC, which is known to be the most carbon-intensive component in concrete due to the calcination and energy demands involved in its production. Using higher SCMs levels significantly reduces CO2 emissions from 35 to 65% compared to the controlled mixture.

4. Conclusions

This study comprehensively evaluated the effects of fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and silica fume (SF) on the mechanical, durability, microstructural, and environmental performance of fine-grained high-performance concrete (HPC). The results show that incorporating SCMs is an effective strategy to reduce the environmental impact of concrete by significantly lowering OPC content, while still achieving excellent performance. Optimized ternary blends—particularly those combining FA and SF—achieved compressive strengths exceeding 100 MPa and exhibited enhanced microstructural density and improved resistance to chloride ion penetration.
Taguchi design and ANOVA analyses identified FA and SF as the most influential parameters governing compressive strength, with GGBFS contributing a moderate effect. The synergistic interaction among these SCMs refined the pore structure, reduced overall porosity, and substantially lowered RCPT values. SEM observations further confirmed the densification of the cementitious matrix in optimized mixtures, providing microstructural evidence for the improved durability performance.
Importantly, all SCM-based mixtures demonstrated lower CO2 emissions per unit compressive strength compared to the OPC-only control mix, underscoring the viability of SCM integration as a practical pathway toward carbon-conscious concrete design.
While these findings highlight the benefits of SCM incorporation, the study has some limitations. The durability assessment was limited to RCPT and water absorption porosity, without additional tests such as freeze–thaw resistance or carbonation. The testing period was restricted to 91 days, and long-term performance under varied environmental conditions was not examined. Furthermore, interactions among SCMs were explored primarily through regression modeling, which may not fully capture all synergistic effects in larger-scale applications.
Overall, the findings reaffirm the pivotal role of SCMs in enabling high-performance, environmentally responsible concrete. The successful use of FA, GGBFS, and SF enables the production of fine-grained HPC that not only satisfies structural and durability requirements but also aligns with global sustainability objectives for the built environment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.-K.N. and D.-H.V.; methodology, T.-K.N.; software, K.-D.T.T.; validation, K.-D.T.T., W.Z.T. and D.-H.V.; formal analysis, T.-K.N.; investigation, T.-K.N.; resources, T.-K.N.; data curation, T.-K.N.; writing—original draft preparation, K.-D.T.T. and D.-H.V.; writing—review and editing, D.-H.V. and W.Z.T.; visualization, T.-K.N. and D.-H.V.; supervision, D.-H.V. and W.Z.T.; project administration, D.-H.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

This research was conducted at The University of Danang—University of Technology and Education.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. SEM images of raw materials.
Figure 1. SEM images of raw materials.
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Figure 2. Mixing process and testing procedure of fine-grained HPC.
Figure 2. Mixing process and testing procedure of fine-grained HPC.
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Figure 3. Flowchart of experimental and analytical study.
Figure 3. Flowchart of experimental and analytical study.
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Figure 4. Main effects plot for flowability of fine-grained HPC using Taguchi method.
Figure 4. Main effects plot for flowability of fine-grained HPC using Taguchi method.
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Figure 5. Main effects plot for unit weight of fine-grained HPC using Taguchi method.
Figure 5. Main effects plot for unit weight of fine-grained HPC using Taguchi method.
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Figure 6. Compressive strength results of fine-grained HPC.
Figure 6. Compressive strength results of fine-grained HPC.
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Figure 7. Main effects plot of compressive strength of fine-grained HPC at 7 days using Taguchi method.
Figure 7. Main effects plot of compressive strength of fine-grained HPC at 7 days using Taguchi method.
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Figure 8. Main effects plot of compressive strength of fine-grained HPC at 28 days using Taguchi method.
Figure 8. Main effects plot of compressive strength of fine-grained HPC at 28 days using Taguchi method.
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Figure 9. Main effects plot of compressive strength of fine-grained HPC at 91 days using Taguchi method.
Figure 9. Main effects plot of compressive strength of fine-grained HPC at 91 days using Taguchi method.
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Figure 10. Main effects plot of porosity of fine-grained HPC at 91 days using Taguchi method.
Figure 10. Main effects plot of porosity of fine-grained HPC at 91 days using Taguchi method.
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Figure 11. Main effects plot of RCPT of fine-grained HPC at 91 days using Taguchi method.
Figure 11. Main effects plot of RCPT of fine-grained HPC at 91 days using Taguchi method.
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Figure 12. SEM images of fine-grained HPC at 91-day.
Figure 12. SEM images of fine-grained HPC at 91-day.
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Table 1. Physical properties and chemical compositions of the binder.
Table 1. Physical properties and chemical compositions of the binder.
ItemsOPCFAGGBFSSF
Chemical composition (%)SiO220.2061.1835.8797.54
Al2O34.1319.3015.920.13
CaO61.646.1336.120.19
Fe2O32.989.380.550.13
MgO3.921.357.580.17
K2O0.440.980.360.26
Na2O0.39--0.24
SO32.550.651.301.30
TiO20.59---
Physical PropertiesSpecific gravity3.142.172.982.27
Specific surface area (SSA) (cm2/g)33104695755618,520
Mean particle size (D50) (µm)16.8214.619.031.51
Table 2. Particle size distribution of natural fine aggregates.
Table 2. Particle size distribution of natural fine aggregates.
Sieve Size (mm)ASTM C33Natural Fine Aggregate
Passing Percentage (%)
4.75 95–100100
2.36 80–10076.8
1.18 50–8554.4
0.6 25–6040.1
0.3 5–3021.3
0.15 0–107.9
FM = 3.0
Table 3. Factors and levels used in designing mix proportions.
Table 3. Factors and levels used in designing mix proportions.
FactorsCodeLevels
1234
FA replacement ratio (%)A0102030
GGBFS replacement ratio (%)B0203040
SF replacement ratio (%)C051015
Table 4. Mix proportions of fine-grained HPC (%).
Table 4. Mix proportions of fine-grained HPC (%).
MixturesCombinationOPCFAGGBFSSF
S1A1B1C1100000
S2A1B2C2750205
S3A1B3C36003010
S4A1B4C44504015
S5A2B1C2851005
S6A2B2C17010200
S7A2B3C445103015
S8A2B4C340104010
S9A3B1C37020010
S10A3B2C445202015
S11A3B3C15020300
S12A3B4C23520405
S13A4B1C45530015
S14A4B2C340302010
S15A4B3C23530305
S16A4B4C13030400
Note: S7-A2B3C4: The combination includes FA at level 2—GGBFS at level 3—SF at level 4.
Table 5. ANOVA results of the 28-day compressive strength of fine-grained HPC.
Table 5. ANOVA results of the 28-day compressive strength of fine-grained HPC.
FactorsDegree of Freedom (DF)Sum of Squares (SS)Adj Mean of Square
(Adj MS)		F-Valuep-ValueContribution
FA content3103.44103.446.20.02941.25%
GGBFS content327.5227.521.650.27510.97%
SF content386.4486.445.180.04234.47%
Error633.3633.36 13.30%
Total15250.76 100.00%
Table 6. First Regression Analysis: 28-day compressive strength versus FA (%). GGBFS (%). SF (%) Analysis of Variance.
Table 6. First Regression Analysis: 28-day compressive strength versus FA (%). GGBFS (%). SF (%) Analysis of Variance.
Analysis of Variance
SourceDFAdj SSAdj MSF-Valuep-Value
Regression9222.02624.66965.110.030
 FA (%)10.4130.41340.090.780
 GGBFS (%)10.2420.24220.050.830
 SF (%)135.30535.30537.310.035
 FA (%) × FA (%)16.8916.89061.430.277
 GGBFS (%) × GGBFS (%)11.2841.28360.270.625
 SF (%) × SF (%)163.60163.600613.180.011
 FA (%) × GGBFS (%)10.4390.43920.090.773
 FA (%) × SF (%)10.9500.94980.200.673
 GGBFS (%) × SF (%)12.6442.64390.550.487
Error628.9634.8272
Total15250.989
Model Summary
SR-sqR-sq(adj)R-sq(pred)
2.1971088.46%71.15%22.45%
Coefficients
TermCoefSE CoefT-Valuep-ValueVIF
Constant102.002.0948.720.000
FA (%)−0.0800.273−0.290.78030.80
GGBFS (%)−0.0350.156−0.220.83017.58
SF (%)1.4750.5452.700.03530.80
FA (%) × FA (%)−0.006560.00549−1.190.27712.25
GGBFS (%) × GGBFS (%)0.001670.003230.520.62512.34
SF (%) × SF (%)−0.07980.0220−3.630.01112.25
FA (%) × GGBFS (%)−0.001830.00606−0.300.77317.05
FA (%) × SF (%)0.00650.01460.440.67312.64
GGBFS (%) × SF (%)−0.00900.0121−0.740.48717.05
Regression Equation
Rn28-day = 102.00 − 0.080 FA (%) − 0.035 GGBFS (%) + 1.475 SF (%) − 0.00656 FA (%) × FA (%) + 0.00167 GGBFS (%) × GGBFS (%) − 0.0798 SF (%) × SF (%) − 0.00183 FA (%) × GGBFS (%) + 0.0065 FA (%) × SF (%) − 0.0090 GGBFS (%) × SF (%)
Table 8. CO2 emission of raw material of HPC binder.
Table 8. CO2 emission of raw material of HPC binder.
MaterialCO2 Emission (kg/kg)Source
OPC0.822[69]
GGBFS0.143[69]
FA0.027[69]
SF0.014[70]
Table 9. CO2 emission of fine-grained HPC designed by Taguchi method.
Table 9. CO2 emission of fine-grained HPC designed by Taguchi method.
MixturesOPC (kg/m3)FA (kg/m3)GGBFS (kg/m3)SF (kg/m3)CO2-e (kg/m3)28-Day Strength (MPa)CO2-e/Mpa
(kg/m3/MPa)		CO2-e Reduction
S11032000854.6102.68.30
S2765020451665.0105.56.3−24.3
S36060303101549.7107.45.1−38.6
S44510401150436.3101.94.3−48.6
S5859101051716.3104.26.9−17.4
S67081012020620.4101.66.1−26.7
S744699297149420.1101.24.2−50.2
S83989939899394.2104.83.8−54.9
S9694198099583.4107.75.4−35.0
S10441196196147404.2101.14.0−52.0
S114981992990463.695.64.8−41.8
S1234519739549352.7101.93.5−58.4
S135352920146455.7100.64.5−45.6
S1438929219597363.297.03.7−55.0
S1534229329349337.6100.33.4−59.6
S162942943920311.892.33.4−59.5
Note: CO2-e: CO2 emission (kg/m3); 28-day strength: Compressive strength at 28 days (MPa); CO2-e/Mpa: CO2 emission (kg/m3/MPa); CO2-e reduction: Difference in CO2 emission (%)—compared to the control mixture.
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Nguyen, T.-K.; Thi, K.-D.T.; Vo, D.-H.; Taffese, W.Z. Optimized Quaternary Binder Systems for Sustainable High-Performance Concrete: Insights from Taguchi Design. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 12864. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152412864

AMA Style

Nguyen T-K, Thi K-DT, Vo D-H, Taffese WZ. Optimized Quaternary Binder Systems for Sustainable High-Performance Concrete: Insights from Taguchi Design. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(24):12864. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152412864

Chicago/Turabian Style

Nguyen, Tan-Khoa, Khanh-Dung Tran Thi, Duy-Hai Vo, and Woubishet Zewdu Taffese. 2025. "Optimized Quaternary Binder Systems for Sustainable High-Performance Concrete: Insights from Taguchi Design" Applied Sciences 15, no. 24: 12864. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152412864

APA Style

Nguyen, T.-K., Thi, K.-D. T., Vo, D.-H., & Taffese, W. Z. (2025). Optimized Quaternary Binder Systems for Sustainable High-Performance Concrete: Insights from Taguchi Design. Applied Sciences, 15(24), 12864. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152412864

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