The House Cricket (Acheta domesticus Linnaeus) in Food Industry: Farming, Technological Challenges, and Sustainability Considerations

Abstract

The growing global demand for alternative, sustainable protein sources has increased interest in edible insects, of which the domestic cricket (Acheta domesticus Linnaeus) is one of the most studied and exploited species. Crickets offer a rich source of protein, essential amino acids, and micronutrients, and provide significant benefits for environmental sustainability. This in-depth review, based on recent literature, examines the nutritional composition, developmental stages, and optimal housing conditions of crickets, with a focus on their use in the food industry. It also examines the technological challenges and legal frameworks of cricket farming, including feeding strategies and climate control, as well as the regulations governing insect-based foods. It also addresses potential risks, such as allergenic reactions and concerns related to chitin, as well as the role of crickets in the circular economy. The study outlines key challenges and prospects in insect production for food and feed and identifies priorities for future research. Our research discusses the legal background and highlights current findings related to entomophagy. This article presents an in-depth review of the nutritional value, farming conditions, food applications, and regulatory landscape for crickets as food. It also explores the technological challenges and the role of crickets in sustainability.

1. Introduction

One of the most pressing challenges of the 21st century is ensuring global food security amid rapid population growth, shrinking cultivable land, and limited freshwater resources. As the demand for sustainable, affordable, and nutritious food sources rises, it becomes increasingly vital to explore innovative solutions that can meet these needs without overburdening the planet’s ecosystems [1]. The growing human population poses significant challenges to the future supply of nutritionally valuable food products [2].

Ensuring sustainable food production is among the key challenges of the present age. With the global population projected to reach 8.6 billion by 2030 and natural resources becoming increasingly scarce, sustainable alternatives for food production are imperative [3]. Another pressing concern is that livestock production is projected to increase twofold between 2000 and 2050, as developing countries increasingly rely on animal-based proteins as a major component of their diets. The global protein market was valued at 38 billion US dollars in 2019 and is projected to grow at an annual rate of 9.1% over the period 2020–2027 [4]. At present, the protein market is dominated by animal-based protein production, which continues to expand as developing countries increase their intake of meat and adopt dietary patterns characteristic of Western economies [5].

With the global population nearing 8 billion, the search for sustainable, high-quality protein sources is imperative, as livestock farming—through intensive land and water use and high greenhouse gas emissions—exerts severe environmental pressures [6,7].

One of the primary challenges will be to ensure not only sufficient quantities of food, but also a reliable and nutritionally adequate supply of protein [2]. Food insecurity in the context of climate change is a pressing reality that necessitates the urgent development and implementation of mitigation strategies to ensure the continuous availability of safe, high-quality food [8]. Edible insects represent a promising future protein source, providing not only high-quality proteins but also beneficial fatty acids, dietary fiber, vitamins, and essential minerals [9].

The production of insect-based products has several advantages over that of commercial meat products, as it requires lower water use [10], less land use [11], lower emission of greenhouse gases [12], and waste reduction because they can be fed on organic byproducts [13].

Anthropo-entomophagy is an ancient practice, as early human diets were predominantly insectivorous, with fruits, vegetables, and mammalian meat incorporated only later through evolutionary and cultural development [14,15].

Over 2000 insect species are consumed worldwide, providing food for nearly two billion people across Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Recent research and investment highlight their potential contribution to global food security, though species selection for farming remains critical due to nutritional variability [16,17]. Insects, particularly those with a short life cycle and a high reproduction rate, are generally considered environmentally sustainable alternatives for food and feed production, primarily due to their low greenhouse gas emissions [18]. In addition, they can be reared on low-cost by-products of the food industry, expired food [19,20], or even organic waste [21].

The incorporation of insects into the human diet offers a sustainable, economical, and high-quality protein source, producible through organic waste utilization, while providing biologically valuable proteins, favorable fatty acid profiles, and essential micronutrients [22,23].

The house cricket combines high protein content, health-promoting lipids, and low production costs, positioning it as a valuable element of future sustainable food systems [24,25].

This review provides a comprehensive overview of the global status and future potential of edible insect production, integrating current practices, challenges, and opportunities. By synthesizing existing knowledge and identifying research gaps, it offers guidance for advancing sustainable insect-based food systems.

This article explores the physiological effects of insect consumption and examines current market trends, with a particular focus on the potential applications of house crickets (Acheta domesticus Linnaeus). As awareness grows regarding the environmental advantages of insect farming and the nutritional benefits of edible insects, new questions continue to emerge about their integration into human diets. In Europe, where entomophagy remains in its early stages, it is essential to approach this topic comprehensively, considering both food technology and food safety perspectives. Therefore, the aim of this study is to conduct a comprehensive systematic review of the house cricket (Acheta domesticus Linnaeus) within the context of the food industry, with a particular emphasis on farming practices, technological challenges, and sustainability considerations. This review seeks to synthesise and critically evaluate the current body of scientific knowledge, identify research gaps, and provide evidence-based recommendations to inform future developments and innovations in this sector.

2. The House Cricket (Acheta domesticus Linnaeus)

Insects have a protein level ranging from 9.96 to 35.2 g per 100 g, which shows a great potential to substitute traditional animal proteins [26]. In addition, ten essential and semi-essential amino acids are found in insects that are crucial for the human body [26]. Insects are gaining recognition as an affordable protein source that could complement traditional animal proteins, such as meat, while imposing a lower environmental burden [27]. Insect farming for human consumption is cost-efficient and straightforward, yielding protein of considerable nutritional quality. The appeal of insects lies in their ecological benefits, as they contribute to the valorization of underutilized organic residues while requiring minimal space and water [28].

Furthermore, all essential amino acid contents are predominantly higher than in traditional protein sources are able to meet the daily need of essential amino acids for humans [24,29].

There are three primary strategies for insect production: wild harvesting (natural collection without farming), semi-domestication (outdoor rearing, and full domestication (indoor farming) [3].

House crickets are farmed due to their capacity to utilize resources, such as water and feed, more efficiently than traditional livestock [25,30,31]. With this ability, house crickets as an alternative livestock production could lower the environmental impact [32]. They additionally have a greater growth efficiency and lower feed conversion rate (FCR 1.7–2.3), meaning less feed is needed to produce 1 kg of end product, when compared with traditional livestock (FCR 2.5–10) [32,33,34]. With this knowledge, opportunities to use byproducts in farming of Acheta domesticus can increase the sustainability of the insects even more. However, the feed should not reduce the performance of the insects, including developmental rate, growth rate, survival rate, and their nutritional quality for human consumption [35].

To maintain cricket biodiversity while ensuring a consistent and sustainable food supply, semi-domestication and indoor farming are considered the most effective approaches. Despite this, approximately 92% of the insects globally produced, including house crickets, continue to be sourced through wild harvesting [36]. Nonetheless, recent years have seen notable growth in farming practices [37].

The life cycle of A. domesticus ranges from 30 to 50 days and insects are usually consumed when they reach adulthood, at around day 40 (Figure 1).

Studies involving humans or animals, or any research requiring ethical clearance, must specify the approving body and the associated approval code.

Cricket farms can produce 8–10 cycles per year [39]. Cricket production requires a small area and crickets can be reared at high density, with an approximate average density range (depending on cricket species) of 6000–12,000 crickets/m² and with total fresh yield of 7.3 kg/m² (recalculated from Hanboonsong et al., 2013) [40]. Reared crickets are usually fed commercial chicken feed with high protein content (20–22% protein). To reduce feeding expenses, some farmers incorporate fruits and vegetables into cricket diets; however, reports indicate that nutritionally unbalanced feed compositions, such as aromatic–arboreal diets, may trigger cannibalistic behaviour [41]. Special feeds to meet the dietary requirements of crickets have been developed [40].

Several investigators have simulated large, insect-based production systems such as Tribolium confusum [42], using a variety of food sources [43]. Several non-European human populations use different species of Orthoptera as a food source in Africa [44], Australia [45], Latin America [46,47,48], and North America [49].

Numerous studies have investigated the optimization of Acheta domesticus farming. For instance, the work of Collavo has contributed to this field. The objective of Collavo and colleagues was to identify a food source suitable for the rearing of crickets in a manner that is economically viable, environmentally sustainable, and ecologically responsible. To this end, they conducted a comparative analysis of four distinct insect diets [41]:

(1)

An aromatic–arboreal diet (AAD),

(2)

A dairy cow diet (DCD),

(3)

The dairy cow diet supplemented with yeast (DCD + Y), and

(4)

A human refuse diet (HRD) (Table 1).

The aromatic–arboreal diet was based on organic matter abundant in the Mediterranean shrubland, composed of nitrogen-rich plants with bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties [49].

The DCD and DCD + Y diets were based largely on cereals fed to dairy cows (without the antibiotics and integrators usually added). Researchers used yeast as an additive in the DCD-based diet because preliminary studies had shown that it contains important growth factors [50,51,52], which would enhance cricket yield.

The human refuse diet was selected because of the availability of large quantities of this material and because of agricultural politics. Other considerations that factored into the selection of diets included cost, environmental impact, and sustainability. Table 1 presents the composition of the different diets. In comparing the various diets used to raise the crickets, the scientists evaluated different cricket crowding conditions and the sustainability of cropping systems required to produce the necessary feed.

A secondary objective of the study was to assess the nutritional profiles of crickets reared on four distinct diets, with emphasis on essential amino acids, fatty acids, and trace elements. The results demonstrated that one diet not only ensured high rearing efficiency but also provided substantial amounts of essential nutrients relevant to human nutrition.

Table 1. Diet composition (in grams) [41].

Ingredients Aromatic—Arboreal Diet (AAD)		Grams
False acacia		4.1
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)		2.9
Basel (Ocimum basilicum)		1.3
Sage leaves (Salvia officinalis)		1.0
Hazel leaves (Corylus avellana)		0.5
Maple leaves (Acer campestre)		0.2
	Sum	10.0
Ingredients Dairy Cow Diet with Yeast (DCD+Y)		grams
Soybean flour (Glycine max)		2.07
Lucern (Medicago sativa)		1.78
Corn flour (Zea mays)		1.46
Wheat flour (Triticum durum		1.31
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)		1.15
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris var. esculenta)		1.13
Silo		1.10
	Sum	10.0
Ingredients Dairy Cow Diet (DCD)		grams
Soybean flour (Glycine max)		2.26
Lucern (Medicago sativa)		1.97
Corn flour (Zea mays) 1.65		1.65
Wheat (Triticum durum		1.50
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris var. esculenta)		1.32
Silage corn		1.30
	Sum	10.00
Ingredients of Human Refuse Diet (HRD)		grams
Fruits and vegetables (peel and leftover)		3.4
Rice and pasta		2.7
Pork and beef meat		1.1
Bread		1.1
Cheese skins		1.1
Yolk		0.6
	Sum	10.00

Table 1. Diet composition (in grams) [41].

Ingredients Aromatic—Arboreal Diet (AAD)		Grams
False acacia		4.1
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)		2.9
Basel (Ocimum basilicum)		1.3
Sage leaves (Salvia officinalis)		1.0
Hazel leaves (Corylus avellana)		0.5
Maple leaves (Acer campestre)		0.2
	Sum	10.0
Ingredients Dairy Cow Diet with Yeast (DCD+Y)		grams
Soybean flour (Glycine max)		2.07
Lucern (Medicago sativa)		1.78
Corn flour (Zea mays)		1.46
Wheat flour (Triticum durum		1.31
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)		1.15
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris var. esculenta)		1.13
Silo		1.10
	Sum	10.0
Ingredients Dairy Cow Diet (DCD)		grams
Soybean flour (Glycine max)		2.26
Lucern (Medicago sativa)		1.97
Corn flour (Zea mays) 1.65		1.65
Wheat (Triticum durum		1.50
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris var. esculenta)		1.32
Silage corn		1.30
	Sum	10.00
Ingredients of Human Refuse Diet (HRD)		grams
Fruits and vegetables (peel and leftover)		3.4
Rice and pasta		2.7
Pork and beef meat		1.1
Bread		1.1
Cheese skins		1.1
Yolk		0.6
	Sum	10.00

Table 1 illustrates the comparative environmental impacts and resource requirements of conventional livestock and edible insects, highlighting the superior efficiency and sustainability of insect-based protein production.

Under rearing conditions of 30.5 °C and continuous 24-h lighting, cricket eggs hatched after 13 days, and individuals typically reached adulthood by day 45, resulting in a total egg-to-adult cycle of approximately 57 days. It is important to note that the highest mortality occurred during the first three molts, up to days 9–10 at 30 °C.

When comparing the average weight gain across the various diets (Figure 2), the human refuse diet (HRD) yielded the most favorable growth rate. Within one month, crickets fed with the HRD had doubled their weight and reached their maximum average weight of 0.45 g per individual by week 9. The remaining diets ranked as follows in terms of growth: DCD + Y (0.43 g/cricket), DCD (0.40 g/cricket), and AAD, where the average weight at week 10 was 0.35 g/cricket.

Survival rates measured on day 61 showed the following results: 24% for crickets fed on AAD, 43.2% for DCD + Y, 27.1% for DCD, and 47.5% for HRD (Figure 3).

The optimal harvest time for crickets fed DCD + Y was between weeks 9 and 10, while those raised on HRD reached peak yields between weeks 8 and 9.

Crickets should be placed in clean, well-ventilated containers to minimize physiological stress and reduce the risk of cannibalism. For short-term holding periods (up to several hours), they should be maintained at ambient temperatures (22–25 °C) with minimal feed provision to decrease gut content, thereby improving both hygienic quality and sensory attributes. For extended holding durations (exceeding 12 h), fasting for 12–24 h with access to water only is recommended to facilitate complete purging of the digestive tract.

Prior to processing, crickets should be rapidly inactivated to prevent spoilage and preserve nutritional integrity. Commonly employed methods include shock-freezing at −20 °C or lower (ideally −80 °C for research-grade preservation) or blanching in boiling water for 1–2 min followed by immediate immersion in ice water to halt enzymatic activity and reduce microbial load.

For storage periods exceeding 24 h before further processing, frozen crickets should be kept in airtight, food-grade containers at −20 °C to −80 °C until subsequent operations such as drying, milling, or compound extraction are undertaken.

Rearing crickets using the human refuse diet (HRD) proved to be more efficient in terms of time and weight gain compared to the other diets. For this reason, the scientists focused their efforts on carefully evaluating feed intake, mortality, and weight gain in three colonies raised exclusively on the HRD. Each colony consisted of 50 individuals, and data were collected over a 10-week period, as shown in Figure 4.

The progressive decline in population density over time reflects cumulative mortality arising from both the natural developmental cycle of crickets and dietary influences. Under rearing conditions of 30.5 °C and continuous illumination (24 h light), eggs typically hatch within 13 days, with adults emerging by approximately day 45, resulting in an egg-to-adult cycle of about 57 days. Mortality is highest during the first three molts (up to days 9–10), a period when juveniles are particularly susceptible to environmental stressors and dietary quality. Beyond this stage, survival rates are markedly affected by diet composition: colonies maintained on the human refuse diet (HRD) achieved a survival rate of 47.5% by day 61, whereas those on the aromatic–arboreal diet (AAD) exhibited the lowest survival at 24%. The observed decline in population density is thus attributable to substantial losses during the early molting stages, compounded by cumulative stressors in subsequent weeks, including competition for resources, waste accumulation, potential pathogen exposure, and age-related physiological deterioration. Even with HRD, which yields the most favorable growth outcomes, a gradual reduction in population is inevitable until approximately weeks 8–10, which represent the optimal harvesting period, as both the number and biomass of survivors are maximized at this stage.

3. Prospective Alternatives for Insect Consumption

One of the principal advantages of edible insect production is its capacity to support animal agriculture by providing a sustainable alternative feed source, while simultaneously contributing to the reduction of conventional livestock production and its associated environmental impacts [53].

Insects were likely a key food source for early human populations, with evidence indicating their inclusion in the human diet as far back as prehistoric times. However, proving ancient insect consumption is challenging due to the poor preservation of such remains [54].

Insect-based foods are still not common in Europe. Only products made from four insect species have been assessed as safe for human consumption by EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) so far: the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus larvae), the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria Linnaeus), the house cricket (Acheta domesticus Linnaeus) and the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer larvae) These insect species are considered safe for human consumption based on traditional dietary practices and scientific evaluations; they possess high nutritional value, can be produced in an environmentally sustainable manner, and their farming and processing are regulated to ensure compliance with food safety standards [55,56,57,58].

Comparing past and present insect consumption reveals various perspectives on how practices and attitudes have evolved over time. Historically, even in Western countries, eating insects was often tied to cultural traditions and customs. As noted earlier, entomophagy was widely regarded as a normal and accepted part of the diet in many settings, while in other cases, insects were eaten out of necessity during periods of food shortage [54].

The edible insect industry is rapidly evolving, accompanied by a growing demand for novel products, both in whole form and as processed ingredients [59]. In this context, it is essential to examine the primary technologies employed throughout the production chain. The manufacturing process begins with the post-harvest handling of raw insects and culminates in the production of food products and waste materials, some of which are recovered and repurposed as by-products [60].

Recent advances in insect processing technologies have primarily focused on the extraction of key components such as protein, fat, and chitin. Protein extraction, in particular, may involve the use of water, organic solvents, or enzymatic treatments to improve efficiency for industrial applications. The yield and quality of extracted proteins are highly species-dependent and are influenced by the type of solvent used, which also affects the physicochemical, functional, and bioactive properties of the resulting extracts [61].

New processing technologies for edible insects have been used mainly for protein, fat, and chitin extraction. In order to extract proteins from insect flours, the solubility of proteins was first optimized by adjusting the solvent’s pH, ionic strength, and extraction temperature, followed by water-based extraction [61].

The development of novel food processing technologies is essential for creating functional ingredients and snack products in whole and recognizable forms, thereby supporting the promotion of entomophagy. While the advantages of increased insect consumption have been extensively discussed, less attention has been given to the technological and processing strategies necessary to facilitate this shift. To foster acceptance, efforts should primarily focus on early adopters—particularly younger generations—who represent the key demographic for transforming negative perceptions of insect-based foods [62].

Insect production may raise concerns, as it is a new and developing method of food production. High levels of pathogens or other contaminants, such as heavy metals found in the feed used in insect farming, may be the main vector of contamination for insects intended for human consumption [63,64]. Not to mention, insects may be considered an allergen concern. Insects have a similar protein profile to shellfish/crustaceans that may cause allergic responses in certain individuals [65]. In the evaluation of the authorized products, EFSA notes that for people who have allergies to crustaceans, mites and molluscs, there is a risk of allergic reactions caused by the insect proteins; moreover, allergens from the feed (e.g., gluten) also can be present in the final form of the processed products [66,67,68,69].

However, these concerns may be managed through regulations on agricultural feed, and preventative controls such as HACCP procedures and required labelling on insect-based foods [5,64]

The requirement for high-quality feed for insects produced for human consumption can result in higher production costs compared to conventional livestock meat production [70]. Despite the degree of consumer rejection, many products are currently undergoing the mandatory risk assessment and authorization procedures [71]. The majority of people do not consider insects as a potential food source and often associate them with negative connotations [71,72,73,74,75,76,77].

For Western consumers, edible insects represent an unconventional food choice, making it essential to investigate consumer acceptance in order to better understand the adoption process. Gaining insight into the factors that drive either acceptance or rejection can enhance the efficiency of future research and development efforts, and inform assessments of the commercialization potential of insect-based foods. Despite this, current knowledge remains limited regarding consumer needs, experiences, behaviours, and motivations—factors that are critical for effectively fostering engagement with insect-based products. Moreover, the existing scientific literature on consumer acceptance is highly fragmented and, in some cases, presents inconsistent or even contradictory findings [78]. Disgust and the perception of insects as pests are the most common reasons for rejecting them. Food neophobia plays a key role in shaping the acceptance of edible insects by Western societies [79].

Insects are frequently perceived as dirty, unhygienic, unhealthy, and potential carriers of disease [3], and such perceptions have been shown to contribute significantly to the reluctance of Western consumers to accept insects or insect-based foods as part of their diet [80,81].

Lensvelt and Steenbekkers [82] identify two key strategies for promoting consumer acceptance: one focuses on sensory experience, allowing individuals to engage with insect-based foods through tasting and direct interaction; the other emphasizes marketing and educational approaches, aiming to inform consumers about the benefits and potential of edible insects.

Consumers may not yet be fully ready to embrace this category of products, prompting companies to evaluate the market potential of these two innovative offerings, which incorporate Tenebrio molitor larvae and crickets [83].

Edible insect-based products currently available on the European e-commerce market—predominantly snacks, chocolates, and related items—are produced under the regulation of HACCP guidelines. Additionally, they are often associated with enjoyable taste experiences, which may further support their acceptance.

In order to address negative perceptions of insect-based foods, it is essential to enhance consumer awareness regarding the nutritional and health benefits associated with insect consumption.

Producers should aim to incorporate a broader range of ingredients—both plant- and animal-based—into their product formulations, moving beyond the currently used species to promote greater diversification within the sector. Specifically, in the context of insect-based food production, it is crucial to develop and experiment with a variety of recipes to expand product offerings and enhance consumer appeal. At the policy level, there is a need for the development of regulatory frameworks that facilitate and encourage a sustainable transition toward a green economy. In the insect sector in particular, the introduction of targeted legislation is essential to fully unlock and harness the potential of edible insects [83].

4. Nutritional Potential and Applications of Crickets as an Alternative Protein Source

Edible insects can be consumed in every stage of their life cycle; however, their energy value and nutritional composition significantly change through their development [84]. They are also rich in essential amino acids such as lysine and methionine, which are often limiting in plant-based protein sources. In addition to protein, crickets contain healthy fats, particularly polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6, which are beneficial for human health. Furthermore, crickets are rich in micronutrients such as iron, zinc, and B vitamins, making them a valuable food source, particularly for populations in developing countries suffering from micronutrient deficiencies.

Crickets offer a unique and promising source of nutrition for humans and animals alike. Their high protein content, along with a favorable ratio of essential amino acids, fats, vitamins, and minerals, positions them as an alternative protein source that could help alleviate food security concerns. According to [85] crickets contain between 60 and 70% protein by dry weight, making them comparable to traditional meat sources, such as beef, chicken, and fish.

4.1. Protein Content and Amino Acids

The protein found in crickets is of high quality, with all nine essential amino acids required by humans. A comparison between the amino acid profile of cricket protein and conventional animal proteins reveals that crickets are an excellent source of essential amino acids like leucine, lysine, and threonine [26]. These amino acids play a critical role in muscle growth, immune function, and overall health. The amino acid profile of crickets is particularly well-suited for incorporation into various food products, particularly in protein supplements [86].

Edible insect proteins meet the World Health Organization’s recommended levels for essential amino acids [25]. Furthermore, their digestibility is generally high—ranging from 76% to 98%—which exceeds that of many plant proteins, such as peanuts and lentils (around 52%), and is only slightly lower than that of animal proteins like beef and egg white (100%) [84,85]. A study investigated the nutritional values and functional properties of the house cricket (Acheta domesticus) and the field cricket (Gryllus bimaculatus) [87].

The research demonstrated that both cricket species contain a high protein content, ranging from 60% to 70% of dry weight, with a complete profile of essential amino acids, alongside a lipid fraction of 10% to 23%. Furthermore, considerable amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids—particularly omega-3 and omega-6—were identified, as well as notable concentrations of key minerals, including phosphorus, sodium, and calcium. Protein extraction from both species was conducted through alkaline solubilisation at pH 11.0–12.0, followed by isoelectric precipitation at pH 4.0. The extracted proteins exhibited high water-holding capacity, moderate foaming capacity and stability, and strong emulsifying activity. These nutritional and functional properties indicate significant potential for their application in a variety of food products, serving both as a direct source of nutrition and as processed protein extracts, thereby representing a promising alternative for the development of sustainable protein-based ingredients [85,87].

Table 2. Proximate nutrient composition and mineral content of the two cricket species [85].

	A. domesticus	G. bimaculatus
Components	% dry matter
Moisture	6.3 ± 0.04	3.0 ± 0.03 ***
Protein	71.7 ± 0.5	60.7 ± 0.4 ***
Lipid	10.4 ± 0.1	23.4 ± 0.1 ***
Ash	5.4 ± 0.3	2.8 ± 0.06 **
Fibre	4.6 ± 0.2	10.0 ± 0.3 ***
Carbohydrate	1.6 ± 0.1	0.1 ± 0.01 ***
Mineral content	mg/100 g dry matter
Calcium (Ca)	149.75 ± 7.16	105.14 ± 9.31 **
Sodium (Na)	101.44 ± 7.80	88.84 ± 20.43
Potassium (K)	389.92 ± 1.38	321.71 ± 6.21 **
Phosphorus (P)	899.33 ± 36.19	702.02 ± 6.35 **
Magnesium (Mg)	136.58 ± 4.92	72.94 ± 2.64 ***
Iron (Fe)	8.83 ± 3.88	7.16 ± 1.28
Copper (Cu)	4.86 ± 0.35	3.86 ± 0.18
Manganese (Mn)	4.40 ± 0.08	3.40 ± 0.13 ***
Zinc (Zn)	19.61 ± 0.83	14.39 ± 2.29 *

Values are expressed as means ± standard deviations of triplicate analyses. Data means were compared with A. domesticus using Student’s t-test. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

presents a comparative analysis of the proximate composition and mineral content of Acheta domesticus and Gryllus bimaculatus, highlighting significant differences in their nutritional profiles.

Table 3. Amino acid content (g/100 g dry matter) of the two cricket species [85].

	A. domesticus	G. bimaculatus
Amino acid
Valine	4.50 ± 0.03	3.50 ± 0.03 ***
Isoleucine	2.90 ± 0.10	2.35 ± 0.07 *
Leucine	3.80 ± 0.14	3.88 ± 0.08
Lysine	3.22 ± 0.08	2.89 ± 0.07 **
Threonine	1.65 ± 0.05	1.67 ± 0.09
Phenylalanine	2.38 ± 0.03	2.24 ± 0.05
Methionine	0.98 ± 0.03	0.86 ± 0.04
Histidine	1.72 ± 0.02	1.57 ± 0.03
Tryptophan	0.43 ± 0.03	0.27 ± 0.02 ***
Arginine	3.92 ± 0.05	3.47 ± 0.05 *
Asparagine + Aspartic acid	4.61 ± 0.23	2.87 ± 0.16 ***
Glutamine + Glutamic acid	6.45 ± 0.05	6.77 ± 0.07
Serine	1.59 ± 0.09	1.32 ± 0.13 *
Glycine	2.60 ± 0.15	3.31 ± 0.26 **
Alanine	3.67 ± 0.05	4.69 ± 0.10 ***
Cystine	0.40 ± 0.00	0.38 ± 0.00
Proline	3.04 ± 0.03	2.81 ± 0.06 *
Tyrosine	2.71 ± 0.10	2.77 ± 0.05
EAA	21.58 ± 0.28	19.23 ± 0.04 **
NEAA	28.97 ± 0.48	28.40 ± 0.22
Total	50.55 ± 0.20	47.63 ± 0.27 ***

Values are expressed as means ± standard deviations of triplicate analyses. Data means were compared with A. domesticus using Student’s t-test. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. EAA = essential amino acids, NEAA = nonessential amino acids.

compares the amino acid composition of A. domesticus and G. bimaculatus, highlighting differences in essential, non-essential, and total amino acid contents.

4.2. Fatty Acids and Energy

Crickets are also rich in unsaturated fatty acids, including linoleic acid (omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3), both of which are important for cardiovascular health. These fatty acids, along with their favorable polyunsaturated to saturated fat ratio, suggest that crickets could serve as an excellent component in a balanced diet. In addition to their fats, crickets provide a significant amount of energy, with 10–20% of their dry weight consisting of lipids [88,89].

The energy efficiency of various insect species is generally comparable to, and in some cases rivals, that of conventional meat products, although it is influenced by their fat content [90]. Additionally, edible insects are notable for their substantial caloric value, providing between 290 and over 750 kcal per 100 g of dry matter.

The fat content of insects typically falls between 10% and 60% of dry matter, with larval stages generally containing more fat than adult stages [20,25]. These values, however, vary according to species and diet. For example, caterpillars and termites tend to have the highest fat levels (8.6–15.2 g per 100 g), whereas grasshoppers and crickets contain less fat (3.8–5.3 g per 100 g). The lipid fraction of edible insects is notable for its richness in monounsaturated (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids [28]. The predominant MUFAs include palmitoleic acid (C16:1) and oleic acid (C18:1n9), with palmitic acid also occurring in relatively high amounts. In some species, polyunsaturated fatty acids can account for up to 70% of total fatty acids [23].

4.3. Micronutrient and Mineral Composition

The mineral content of crickets is notable, particularly in the case of calcium, iron, and magnesium, all of which are essential for bone health, oxygen transport, and muscle function. Studies show that crickets provide upwards of 1100 mg of calcium per 100 g of dry weight, which is significantly higher than other protein sources [86]. Crickets also contain substantial amounts of iron, which is important for preventing iron-deficiency anemia, a common nutritional deficiency worldwide [3].

4.4. Chitin Content in Crickets

Chitin is a naturally occurring component of edible insects, with its concentration varying according to the species, developmental stage, and age of the insect. For instance, the chitin content of adult crickets and adult mealworms has been estimated at 67.1 mg/kg and 137.2 mg/kg dry weight, respectively [91,92]. Chitin, a biopolymer found in the exoskeletons of arthropods like crickets, is a complex polysaccharide composed of N-acetylglucosamine units. While it is not a protein, it is a major component of the cricket’s exoskeleton and has several potential applications. Chitin itself is indigestible by humans but can be processed into chitosan, a derivative that has applications in pharmaceuticals, food processing, and agriculture due to its biocompatibility and biodegradability [92,93].

In terms of nutritional value, chitin’s role is somewhat limited for human consumption, though its potential benefits lie in its use as a dietary fiber or in health supplements. Chitosan, derived from chitin, is particularly promising for weight management and cholesterol reduction [93]. However, the presence of chitin in edible insects also introduces an allergenic risk. The proteins encapsulated within the chitin matrix can trigger allergic reactions, particularly in individuals with a sensitivity to shellfish [3].

Table 4. Nutritional composition of house cricket (per 100 g dry weight) [73,74].

Component	Amount
Protein	60–70 g
Fat	10–25 g
Ash	4–5 g
Fiber (Chitin)	5–10 g
Iron	4–5 mg
Zinc	3–4 mg
Calcium	30–40 mg

presents the nutritional composition of the house cricket (Acheta domesticus) per 100 g dry weight.

5. Environmental Control in Cricket Farming

Cricket farming requires precise environmental control to ensure optimal growth rates and productivity. Crickets, being ectothermic, require a stable environment with controlled temperature, humidity, and light to thrive. The optimal temperature range for house crickets is between 30 and 32 °C, and they require 50–70% humidity for successful breeding and growth [73].

Vertical farming has become an increasingly popular method for cricket production. By utilizing multi-tiered farming systems, vertical farms can maximize the use of space and reduce the environmental footprint of cricket farming. These systems allow for year-round production, providing a consistent supply of crickets regardless of seasonal variations. Vertical farms also employ automated systems to regulate temperature, humidity, and lighting, further improving the efficiency of production [80]. UV light in the UVA dominating range of 300–400 nm has been known to be used for pest control due to its lethal effect on insects, such as moths [94]. In a study, crickets were exposed once daily to narrowband UV-B irradiation (285 nm, 0.08 W/m²) for 4 h, timed to coincide with the provision of fresh feed and their peak feeding activity. In this study, the absence of a measurable growth response in house crickets (Acheta domesticus) to narrowband UV-B irradiation (285 nm, 0.08 W/m², 4 h/day) may be attributed to the combination of intentionally minimal light intensity to avoid mortality, the insects’ tendency to seek shelter under egg cartons during the photoperiod, and active avoidance behavior even when exposure was synchronized with feeding time. Collectively, these factors likely reduced effective UV-B exposure to a level insufficient to elicit physiological changes in growth [94].

These advances in farming technologies not only improve the sustainability of cricket production but also make it more economically viable for large-scale operations. For example, automated feeding systems and waste management protocols are being implemented to reduce labor costs and ensure optimal feed conversion ratios [86].

6. Feed and Nutrition for Crickets

Many types of agricultural, industrial, and household wastes can be recycled as insect feed, since they can digest forage higher in dietary fiber. Crickets are omnivorous and can be fed a wide variety of organic waste materials, including food scraps, agricultural by-products, and even manure. Using organic waste as feed helps reduce the environmental impact of cricket farming by minimizing the need for traditional feed crops, which require significant amounts of water, land, and fertilizers.

Several studies have explored the impact of different diets on the nutritional profile of crickets. For instance, crickets fed on a diet rich in plant-based proteins (e.g., soybean meal) exhibit higher protein content in their body composition, whereas diets high in carbohydrates can result in crickets with higher fat content [87]. By adjusting the dietary composition, it is possible to tailor the nutritional profile of crickets to suit different market needs, such as for high-protein sports nutrition products or for use in animal feed.

However, while organic waste-based feed is an attractive option from an environmental standpoint, there is a need for greater research into how feed composition affects the flavor, texture, and nutrient availability in cricket-based food products. Balancing the need for sustainability with the desire for high-quality, nutrient-rich crickets will be crucial as the industry scales.

7. Challenges in Cricket Farming

7.1. Biosecurity and Disease Control

As with any form of livestock farming, cricket farming is susceptible to disease outbreaks that can compromise the health and productivity of the colony. Crickets are particularly vulnerable to bacterial infections, such as those caused by Pseudomonas spp., and fungal diseases like Metarhizium anisopliae, which can decimate a cricket population in a short time [80]. In addition to bacterial and fungal infections, crickets are also prone to parasitic infestations, which can severely affect their growth and reproduction.

To mitigate these risks, cricket farms must implement robust biosecurity protocols, including maintaining clean facilities, monitoring cricket health regularly, and using non-toxic pesticides or natural remedies to control pests. Probiotic treatments, such as the inclusion of beneficial bacteria in the diet, are being explored as a means of improving gut health and preventing disease outbreaks in cricket colonies [18].

7.2. Chitin Content and Digestibility

One of the main challenges when incorporating insects into the human diet is their chitin content. Chitin, a polysaccharide that forms the structural component of the insect exoskeleton, is not digestible by humans. While it provides beneficial fiber that aids in digestion, its presence can also reduce the bioavailability of other nutrients by binding to proteins and minerals [86].

The amount of chitin in edible insects varies depending on the species and developmental stage of the insect. In-house crickets, chitin content can be as high as 20–25% of their dry weight [87]. As a result, when consumed in large quantities, chitin can cause gastrointestinal discomfort in some individuals, leading to bloating and indigestion. To address this issue, research is ongoing into methods of de-chitinizing crickets, either by using enzymatic processes or by mechanical grinding to reduce the exoskeleton’s impact on digestibility [89]. Additionally, the bioactive compounds present in chitin may offer health benefits, such as enhancing immune function, but these effects require further exploration. For now, the challenge remains in processing crickets in a way that retains their nutritional benefits while minimizing the negative impacts of chitin.

8. Crickets: Opportunities and Regulation

8.1. Food Applications

Crickets can be processed into various food products, including whole dried crickets, protein powders, energy bars, and snacks. The protein powder derived from crickets is a versatile ingredient that can be incorporated into baked goods, smoothies, and other food products. Cricket-based protein bars have gained popularity due to their high protein content and sustainability benefits.

8.2. Sustainability and Circular Economy

A food system is considered sustainable when it provides food security and nutrition for everyone without compromising economic, social, or environmental sustainability for future generations. The concept can be understood in many different ways, as its interpretation depends greatly on factors such as context, culture, economic scale, and geographical location [95].

The sustainability of our food systems is already under pressure and will face even greater challenges in the future as the demand to feed a growing global population continues to rise. At the same time, higher consumption of animal-based foods, rapid urbanization, climate change, and the degradation of land, water, and ecosystems—along with the loss of biodiversity—are straining natural resources and further limiting food production. While insects are not a one-size-fits-all solution to every global challenge, the expanding knowledge of their potential shows they can play an important role in making our food systems more sustainable [96].

In achieving global food security in a sustainable way, insects have the potential to play a vital role as both food and feed. For at least part of the world’s population, using insects as a food source is economically, ecologically, and culturally viable, and preserving this practice directly supports the principles of sustainable development [97].

Cricket farming offers significant environmental benefits over traditional livestock farming. Crickets require less land, water, and feed to produce the same amount of protein. Additionally, crickets can convert organic waste into valuable protein, contributing to the circular economy. The use of insects in food production could play an important role in achieving global sustainability targets, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions and minimizing food waste [88].

Crickets can be farmed using locally available feed sources such as agricultural by-products and weeds, thereby contributing to environmental cleanup. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the use of crickets for human consumption and as animal feed, driven by the recognition of their nutritional value and their potential to enhance food security. Globally, the most frequently consumed cricket family is Gryllidae, followed by the Gryllotalpa family, while the house cricket (Acheta domesticus Linnaeus) is the most widely consumed species [98].

8.3. Risks and Safety

In addition to the benefits of insect production and consumption, it is essential to consider the associated risks. Consumer acceptance remains limited, and there is a lack of comprehensive research on microbiological safety and potential health impacts. Furthermore, concerns related to chemical safety during production and processing, as well as the risk of fraud along the supply chain, present additional challenges [54]. While crickets offer numerous health benefits, there are potential risks associated with their consumption, particularly for individuals with allergies to shellfish. The primary allergens in crickets are proteins found in their exoskeletons, which may trigger allergic reactions similar to those caused by shellfish [92]. Moreover, crickets contain chitin, which is indigestible by humans but has applications in industries such as biodegradable plastics.

Chitin is a biopolymer found in the exoskeletons of insects, including crickets. It can be extracted and used in various applications such as bioplastics, medical dressings, and as a dietary fiber supplement. However, chitin is not a protein, and it is essential to avoid misconceptions regarding its nutritional value [87].

8.4. Regulation and Authorisation

Cricket farming contributes to the circular economy by converting organic waste, such as food scraps and agricultural by-products, into high-quality protein. This reduces waste sent to landfills and lowers the environmental impact of food production. Cricket farming’s integration into the circular economy highlights its potential for contributing to global sustainability goals.

8.5. Food Regulations for Crickets

In the European Union, edible insects and insect-based products are classified as Novel Foods—defined as foods that were not consumed to a significant degree within the EU prior to 15 May 1997, according to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283, which has been in effect since 1 January 2018. Under this regulation, the commercialisation of such products requires the submission of a formal application by the company intending to place the product on the market [66,67,68,99]. This application must undergo a comprehensive evaluation and authorisation process overseen by the European Commission (EC) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), with the EFSA specifically responsible for assessing and confirming the product’s safety for consumer use (Lähteenmäki-Uutela, Mancini, Żuk-Gołaszewska). On 13 January 2021, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) issued a positive opinion, which was subsequently adopted by the European Commission as Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/882 on 1 June 2021 [100]. As of 22 June 2021, the authorization for placing dried mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) on the EU market was granted to the applicant and its associated business partners. Later that year, the application for dried and frozen migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) was also approved under Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/1975 [101]. In 2022, authorization was granted for frozen and freeze-dried formulations of yellow mealworm, available either whole or in powdered form [102]. That same year, dried, ground, and frozen forms of the house cricket (Acheta domesticus) received approval as well [103]. In 2023, further authorisations were issued for the commercialisation of partially defatted powder from house cricket and various formulations (frozen, paste, dried, and powder) of Alphitobius diaperinus (lesser mealworm), as outlined in Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/58 [104]. Globally, regulations governing the consumption of insects remain insufficient. Certain species may contain carcinogenic substances, while African silkworm larvae can cause seasonal ataxia syndrome due to their thiaminase content. Someinsect products have been found to contain toluene, a toxic depressant. In addition, insects such as silkworms, cicadas, crickets, wasps, grasshoppers, and stink bugs are known to trigger allergic reactions. In fact, since 1980, insects have ranked as the fourth most common cause of allergies in China [105].

Food regulations for crickets vary by region. In the European Union, crickets are classified as novel foods, meaning they must undergo safety assessments before being approved for human consumption. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has provided guidelines for the safe use of insects in food products, including ensuring that insects are free from pathogens and contaminants [82]. Similarly, the FDA in the U.S. has outlined regulations for the use of insects in food, including testing for potential allergens and toxins.

9. Consumer Acceptance and Market Opportunities

9.1. Cultural Barriers and Sensory Preferences

While insects have long been a part of the diet in many parts of the world, particularly in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, their consumption is not widespread in Western countries. The “yuck factor” remains a significant barrier to consumer acceptance, as many people in Western cultures find the idea of eating insects unappealing due to cultural norms and unfamiliarity with insect-based foods [106]. Overcoming these barriers requires consumer education and the development of insect-based food products that are palatable and easy to incorporate into everyday diets.

In addition to the psychological barrier, sensory preferences—such as taste, texture, and appearance—also play a significant role in consumer acceptance. Sensory evaluations of cricket-based foods, such as cricket protein powder in smoothies or cricket flour in baked goods, have shown that while some consumers are open to the idea of eating insects, others are hesitant due to the perceived “earthy” taste and crunchy texture of whole insects [107]. To address this, food developers are focusing on creating insect-based products that mask the sensory attributes of insects, such as by using cricket protein powder in processed foods like protein bars, pastas, or snacks, where the insect-derived flavor is less noticeable.

Some studies have compiled research examining the nutritional composition, health effects, safety, environmental sustainability [108], as well as the farming and production of edible insects. However, only a few have explored the factors that motivate people’s willingness to consume insects [109].

To enhance consumer interest in Western countries, various insect processing techniques have been developed. These include methods such as drying (e.g., sun drying, freeze-drying, oven drying, microwave drying), as well as extraction using ultrasound, cold atmospheric pressure plasma treatment, or dry fractionation. Fractionation processes are primarily intended to incorporate insects into food products in an unrecognizable form, such as powders or meal [110].

All of the aforementioned methods can influence the sensory characteristics of edible insects, with aroma and taste showing considerable variation between species. For instance, ants and termites are often described as sweet, nutty, fatty, and crunchy, with notes reminiscent of cereal and wood. Grasshoppers are characterized by aromas of cereal, wood, and nuttiness, combined with umami and vegetable flavors, and a crusty, firm texture. Crickets are frequently compared to popcorn or chicken, with creamy notes, broth-like aromas, and flavors of nuttiness, cereal, umami, and vegetables [111]. The primary factors shaping taste and aroma are pheromones present on the insect’s surface, which are influenced by environmental conditions, diet, and processing methods. For example, scalding removes these pheromones, leaving the insects virtually tasteless [110]. Additionally, during cooking, insects readily absorb the flavors of added ingredients [111,112].

9.2. Market Opportunities

One promising avenue for cricket-based food products is the sports and health food market. Cricket protein, due to its high amino acid profile, is well-suited for inclusion in protein supplements for athletes and fitness enthusiasts. Cricket protein is also gaining traction as an ingredient in sustainable, high-protein snacks, protein bars, and beverages, appealing to environmentally conscious consumers looking for alternative protein sources [107].

Further research into the potential health benefits of cricket consumption, such as its impact on weight management, gut health, and cardiovascular health, could further enhance its appeal in the wellness sector. Additionally, as sustainability becomes a major concern among consumers, products derived from crickets could increasingly be positioned as part of a sustainable and eco-friendly lifestyle.

Advances in entomological research have led to the development of a wide range of modern insect-based products, contributing to the growing popularity of edible insect consumption. Today, insects are consumed not only for their nutritional value but also for novelty and enjoyment. Nevertheless, concerns persist regarding potential health and safety risks associated with their use. At present, the edible insect market is not yet fully aligned with the range of benefits these products can offer. To bridge this gap, targeted promotion and production strategies are recommended to both attract and reassure consumers. Semi-cultivation methods are suggested as an effective means of increasing the yield of certain species. Furthermore, standardizing farming and processing practices is essential to ensure consistent product quality. Strengthening communication between farms and industry stakeholders can facilitate efficient collaboration and enhance profitability. Ultimately, integrating insect farming into the broader agricultural industry—through the development of innovative products, improvements in cultivation techniques, and optimization of production—holds promise for expanding the sector and realizing its full potential [105].

According to a study, low-temperature storage effectively reduces lipid oxidation and the resulting quality deterioration, which may help lower production costs and enable manufacturers to consistently deliver high-quality insect-based products to consumers. The findings provide practical guidance for the food industry to enhance product quality and improve logistical flexibility. Furthermore, the research offers a comprehensive overview of the factors influencing product stability, thereby laying the foundation for reliable quality management practices that can meet the growing demand for sustainable and functional insect-based foods. In addition to storage temperature, the study highlights the importance of investigating the effect of relative humidity, as it plays a critical role in predicting the shelf life of insect-based foods under real-world distribution conditions [113].

Keil (2016) suggested that rather than focusing on producing final food products or menu items, the edible insect industry could achieve a greater impact by developing insect-based raw materials. This approach makes it easier to build partnerships with established food companies than simply creating end products for consumers (such as cookies or protein bars). Furthermore, producing insect-derived ingredients that can be incorporated into mainstream consumer foods, functional foods, and pet foods allows the industry to benefit from existing companies’ standardization and quality control systems. Incorporating insects into popular, familiar food products—rather than offering them in their whole, unprocessed form—also significantly reduces the likelihood of consumer aversion [114].

10. Conclusions

Entomophagy has the potential to address the increasing global demand for nutrients, as edible insects are a rich source of proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals, offering significant economic and environmental benefits. Research studies have confirmed the considerable nutritional and medicinal values of edible insects. Based on the findings of this review, the house cricket (Acheta domesticus) appears to hold notable potential for applications in the food industry, particularly with respect to nutritional value, environmental sustainability, and adaptability to diverse farming systems. Its broader incorporation into food production, however, may be influenced by the resolution of technological constraints, the development of more robust regulatory frameworks, and the fostering of consumer acceptance. Although current evidence indicates promising prospects for the safe and sustainable use of house crickets, additional research remains necessary to address knowledge gaps, particularly in relation to optimised farming methods, advanced processing technologies, and the long-term implications for human health. Progress in these areas could facilitate the alignment of cricket production with wider objectives in food security and sustainability. Nevertheless, regulatory and cultural obstacles remain, and more research is needed to better understand the nutritional properties and safety of insect-based foods.

Future research should place greater emphasis on improving the acceptance of insect-based foods and analyzing consumer attitudes, thereby enabling the development of marketable food products tailored to consumer needs.

As new insect species receive authorization for food distribution in Europe, further research is needed to explore consumer knowledge, attitudes, motivations, and perceived barriers. Given that Hungarian studies have so far focused mainly on the economic, technical, and sensory dimensions of product development, future focus group discussions may provide deeper insights into consumer perspectives [115,116].