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Article

Sex and Age Disparities in Water Polo-Related Skills

by
Francisco Noronha
1,2,
Sofia Canossa
1,
Diogo D. Carvalho
1,2,
Ana Sofia Monteiro
1,2,
José Afonso
1,
Flávio Castro
3 and
Ricardo Fernandes
1,2,*
1
Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal
2
Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal
3
Aquatic Sports Research Group, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Dance, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre 90010-150, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(17), 9381; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179381
Submission received: 18 July 2025 / Revised: 22 August 2025 / Accepted: 26 August 2025 / Published: 26 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Biomechanics and Sports Sciences)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

Existing research points to sex-specific biological and physiological differences, but the effects of sex and age on water polo-specific motor skills have not yet been sufficiently investigated. The current study investigated sex- and age-related disparities in in-water vertical jump, change of direction ability, sprint performance, aerobic fitness and shot velocity, hypothesising that these variables are related to the players’ specific motor performance. Sixty-six players (47 males, 19 females) were split into an adult and a young group (each with n = 33). Two-way (sex and age as factors) analysis of variance and Tukey’s post hoc test were employed to evaluate the influence of sex and age on specific water polo skill performance. The male players’ in-water vertical jump (135.4 ± 8.1 vs. 121.5 ± 6.1 cm), shot velocity with previous displacement (68.3 ± 6.4 vs. 51.0 ± 2.5 km·h−1) and without displacement (68.5 ± 5.7 vs. 52.2 ± 2.9 km·h−1), 10 m sprint (5.6 ± 0.9 vs. 6.6 ± 0.4 s), aerobic fitness (311.7 ± 92.1 vs. 235.7 ± 70.3 m) and change of direction (3.3 ± 0.4 vs. 3.9 ± 0.4 s) scores were superior to those of female players. No significant age-related differences were observed in shot velocity with previous displacement (F (1,53) = 2.124, p = 0.151, η2p = 0.039) or 10 m sprint performances (F(1,62) = 0.935, p = 0.337, η2p = 0.015). Male players outperformed females in most water polo-specific motor skills, while age-related differences were limited.

1. Introduction

Research on sex and age disparities in sports spans multiple disciplines and examines their impact on athletic performance. However, persistent participation gaps suggest underlying patterns that remain poorly understood [1]. Available data indicate that equalising performance between the sexes in sport is challenging, as adult men generally perform 10–30% better than trained women across various sports [2]. Traditional discussions often focus on biological sex due to anatomical and physiological differences caused by sex chromosomes and hormones [2,3]. These discrepancies emerge during puberty, when hormonal changes shape physical development and influence the performance trajectories of male and female players throughout ageing [4,5]. While biological sex establishes fundamental physical distinctions, the influence of age introduces additional complexity to performance development and athletic trajectories.
Age plays a crucial role in athletic performance, influencing physical and sport-specific motor skills, as well as career longevity. Peak performance is typically achieved in early adulthood, although this varies according to the specific demands of each sport [6]. These differences highlight the need for age-specific training programmes to optimise performance potential [7]. In water polo, technical skills such as ball handling, passing, shooting, eggbeater kicking, and defensive and offensive actions depend on physiological, anatomical and biomechanical factors [8,9]. Consequently, variations in technical skills across developmental stages impact training strategies, competition levels and talent identification. These factors, shaped by both sex and age, influence performance and athlete development. Moreover, men and women may exhibit different performance profiles even within the same age group, due to differences in maturation [10] and the ageing process, which affects the sexes differently [11].
A closer examination of the data may reveal a more complex and potentially unexpected pattern that challenges conventional assumptions. In water polo, the importance of specific technical skills in game situations is well established, as they are essential to overall performance and player success [12,13]. However, a review of the literature indicates that sex- and age-related disparities in these skills are not yet fully understood [14]. This study conducted a comprehensive investigation into such disparities in the technical abilities of water polo players. It also explored the physiological and experiential factors underlying these differences, as well as their impact on performance and developmental trajectories. By addressing these gaps, the study provides new insights into how skill acquisition and refinement may differ based on age and sex. These findings highlight the need to examine sex- and age-specific effects on performance to inform better training strategies.
Understanding how sex and age influence sport-specific technical skills is essential for optimising training, performance and talent development in elite water polo [15]. While the existing literature emphasises physiological differences between the sexes and age-related performance trends, few studies have systematically investigated how these factors affect key technical skills in water polo [16]. As a sport that uniquely combines strength, agility, endurance and tactical execution in an aquatic environment, it is crucial to assess performance using specific metrics such as in-water vertical jump, swimming velocity, shot velocity, and change of direction [17]. Furthermore, female and younger players remain underrepresented in performance research, resulting in a lack of evidence-based approaches tailored to their needs [18]. To address these research gaps and better understand how sex and age jointly shape technical performance in water polo, this study adopted a targeted empirical approach.
Previous research on athletic performance, acute exercise, and training in water polo has focused on male players or neglected sex-related differences altogether. As a result, substantial gaps remain in our understanding of female players physiological characteristics, performance thresholds, and responses to exercise and training relative to their male counterparts. Moreover, the influence of ageing on sex-specific differences in these areas requires further investigation. The aim of the present study was to determine whether sex- and age-related disparities in water polo are as pronounced as those reported in other sports. We addressed this question by analysing empirical data within a framework that not only confirms established trends but also highlights unexpected deviations. We hypothesised that sex and age influence the performance of water polo-specific technical skills and that their interaction also contributes to performance outcomes.

2. Materials and Methods

A total of 66 water polo players with experience of both national and international competitions volunteered to participate in the study. The mean (±SD) age of the males and females were 21.17 ± 1.0 and 19.11 ± 1.0 years, respectively. All players trained for at least 5 sessions and played one game per week. The study employed a cross-sectional design, incorporating both male and female water polo players from different age categories (adult 25.24 ± 1.0 and young 15.91 ± 0.1 years of age), enabling a direct comparison of performance outcomes and a robust evaluation of the proposed hypotheses concerning the main effects of sex, age and their potential interaction.
The independent variables—sex and age—were selected based on their well-documented influence on physiological development and athletic performance trajectories. Neuromuscular differences may contribute to this, but motor unit activity was not measured, so the mechanisms remain speculative. The dependent variables—specific technical skills—were chosen because they reflect fundamental capacities required for success in water polo and offer reliable quantifiable measures of sport-specific performance. To rigorously test the hypotheses, we developed and implemented a battery of water polo-specific technical skill assessments designed to capture the differences between sex and age groups. These assessments comprised in-water vertical jump, change of direction ability, 10 m sprint, aerobic fitness (measured via a field-based protocol) and shot velocity, all of which are recognised as key performance indicators in high-level water polo competition. Familiarisation sessions were not deemed necessary, as all participants had extensive experience with the tested skills, which are regularly integrated into both training sessions and competitive play.

2.1. Experimental Design

Players began the testing session with a standardised 500 m low-to-moderate intensity warm-up, performed in a 25 m indoor swimming pool maintained at 27 °C with a uniform depth of 1.90 m. Immediately following the warm-up, participants completed six water polo-specific technical skill tests (Figure 1), administered in a fixed order to ensure consistency across subjects. These were (i) in-water vertical jump height, assessed using a Sony Handycam HDR-PJ530, Tokyo, Japan digital video camera (1920 × 1080 p resolution) positioned laterally to the testing zone. Each player performed two maximal-effort jumps from a vertical starting position, with the highest value recorded for analysis. The technical error of measurement (TEM) for this test was 0.9 cm [19]; (ii) shooting velocity with and (iii) without displacement, which were assessed in the presence of a goalkeeper to replicate game-like conditions. For each condition, players executed six maximal shots from a 5 m distance [20]. Shot velocity was measured using a 10 Hz radar (Applied Concepts, Inc., Flat Salkerpro, TX, USA), positioned 8 m from the goal, with a sensitivity of 0.045 m·s−1 and a calculated TEM of 2.6%; (iv) 10 m front crawl sprint performance, as measured from three maximal trials, with the fastest time retained for analysis (TEM: 0.1 s); (v) aerobic fitness, which was assessed via the multistage shuttle swim test, a progressive, intermittent protocol previously validated for aquatic sports contexts [21]; (vi) change of direction ability, which was evaluated using a water polo-specific test protocol [22], with three trials completed and the best time recorded (TEM: 0.1 s).

2.2. Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics, including mean ± standard deviation and 95% confidence intervals, were calculated and reported for all performance variables to provide a comprehensive summary of central tendency and dispersion. A two-way analysis of variance (2 × 2 ANOVA) was employed to examine the main effects of sex and age group, as well as their interaction, on water polo-specific technical skill performance. When significant differences were identified, Tukey’s post hoc tests were applied to determine pairwise contrasts between groups. The assumptions underlying the use of parametric tests—namely, normality of distribution and homogeneity of variances—were assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test and visual inspection of residual plots. All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 29.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA), with the threshold for statistical significance set at p < 0.05. Additionally, Cohen’s d was computed to quantify effect sizes and enhance interpretation of group differences. Effect sizes were classified as small (<0.2), moderate (0.2–0.5), large (0.5–1.0), or very large (>1.0), following established conventions [23].

3. Results

Sex-related disparities were observed across all evaluated water polo-specific technical skills (Table 1). Male players consistently demonstrated superior performance compared to their female counterparts in each of the assessed tests. Specifically, males achieved higher scores for the in-water vertical jump (F(1,62) = 51.297, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.453), as well as in shot velocity both with (F(1,53) = 107.312, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.669) and without previous displacement (F(1,52) = 134.790, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.722). Significant sex differences were also observed in 10 m sprint performance (F(1,62) = 19.496, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.239), aerobic fitness, as measured by the shuttle swim test (F(1,61) = 14.986, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.197), and change of direction ability (F(1,62) = 32.953, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.347). These findings highlight the presence of robust sex-related disparities across key physical performance domains relevant to water polo. The magnitude of the observed effects, as reflected by the large partial eta squared values, suggests that sex is a substantial determinant of technical and physical performance in this population.
Age-related differences were evident in several of the assessed performance measures, with older players generally outperforming their younger peers (Table 2). Statistically significant differences between age groups were observed in in-water vertical jump height (F(1,62) = 3.725, p = 0.058, η2p = 0.057), shot velocity without displacement (F(1,52) = 5.864, p = 0.019, η2p = 0.101), aerobic fitness (F(1,61) = 7.811, p = 0.007, η2p = 0.114), and change of direction performance (F(1,62) = 7.408, p = 0.008, η2p = 0.107). These results suggest that age contributes meaningfully to the development of strength, endurance and agility-related capacities in young water polo players. Conversely, no significant age-related effects were found for shot velocity with previous displacement (F(1,53) = 2.124, p = 0.151, η2p = 0.039) or for 10 m sprint performance (F(1,62) = 0.935, p = 0.337, η2p = 0.015), indicating that these specific skills may plateau earlier or be less sensitive to age-related physiological development. Furthermore, no significant interaction effects between sex and age were detected in any of the tests, suggesting that the influence of each variable on performance is independent and additive rather than synergistic. Taken together, these findings support the role of age as a contributing factor to certain motor abilities, particularly those involving explosiveness, aerobic capacity and agility, but that this is not uniform across all skill domains.

4. Discussion

Given the pivotal role of technical skills in water polo performance and the evident inter-team variability, enhancing this competence is essential for improving players’ game outcomes [17,24]. To assess water polo players’ technical skills, sex- and age-related disparities were examined using specific performance tests. The current study demonstrates that both sex and age significantly influence sport-specific technical skills among water polo players. Key performance indicators, such as in-water vertical jump, swimming velocity, and change of direction ability, showed significant differences between male and female players, as well as across development age groups. These findings align with prior research highlighting physiological differences, including muscle power and anaerobic capacity [25,26], but further contribute by providing sport-specific insights. Notably, younger players exhibited lower velocities and reduced explosiveness, suggesting that standardised training protocols may inadequately address the specific development needs of these subgroups [27].
This underrepresentation in performance research underscores the necessity of individualised skill development approaches. Our data showed established sex- and age-related patterns, but also unexpected deviations. As hypothesised, male players were superior in all specific technical skills tested and showed better aerobic and anaerobic capacity. Older players outperformed their younger counterparts in in-water vertical jump height, non-displacement shot velocity, aerobic capacity and agility, suggesting age-related development in these specific technical skills. However, age was not associated with shot velocity following displacement or 10 m sprint performance, suggesting these skills may plateau earlier or exhibit lower age sensitivity. Sex and age independently influenced performance, as their interaction was not significant.
Water polo offensive and defensive specific technical skills are crucial to the success of a team, as tactical performance depends on their efficient use during the game [28,29]. For instance, vertical jumping ability using the eggbeater kick is crucial for performance [30], enabling high passes, shots over defenders and body position control [19,31]. Our players exhibited lower in-water vertical jump heights compared to male [32] and female [33] elite players. Sex-based disparities were observed, as previous assessments of mean eggbeater force, maximal force, mean peak force, jump distance, and total impulse also revealed disparities between the sexes [34]. Furthermore, in-water vertical jump ability and the velocity at which the ball is thrown are widely recognised as crucial factors in the execution of an effective shot at goal [20,35].
The results observed regarding sex disparities in shooting velocity showed that male players scores were consistent with findings from previous studies [36,37], while the performance of our female players was below average when compared to their counterparts in other studies [25,38,39]. These sex disparities are largely due to differences in muscle mass, upper body strength and power in male players [9]. This also supports prior findings indicating that sex influences playing status in professional water polo [40]. However, female players compensate for physical disparities through refined technique, strategic shot placement, and tactical awareness, highlighting the multidimensional nature of shooting efficiency in elite water polo [16]. These results emphasise the need to include the development of specific technical skills and game intelligence in training, especially for female players, despite physiological limitations.
The physiological demands in water polo require endurance, strength and strategy to sustain intense efforts and minimise fatigue [26]. Aerobic metabolism plays a dominant role, but anaerobic energy is crucial for sprints and physical contact [16,41]. Our female players showed an anaerobic capacity equivalent that of players in the Australian National league, while male players achieved test results comparable to those of the national squad [42]. In addition, the sprint performance of both sexes corresponded to that observed in Spanish water polo players [43]. Previous research shows that players maintain a high heart rate during play, highlighting the need for aerobic fitness for recovery and optimal performance [44,45]. Regarding aerobic capacity, the players of the Australian National Women’s Team outperformed our players, in both sexes, illustrating the differences in competition levels [46].
Water polo demands rapid movement transitions and spatial awareness [26]. Our female players outperformed both the Canadian team and comparable male counterparts in change of direction performance [47,48]. Younger males also outperformed older ones [49], highlighting sex and age effects on agility. The current study showed that age influenced the performance specific technical skills. After puberty, maturation, experience and training outweigh physical growth [5], often causing greater variation among players than between age groups [7,50]. In a previous performance factors study with youth water polo players, age-related disparities in specific motor abilities were analysed. Similarly to our data, it was found that older players performed better in motor tasks, though not in swimming velocity [51]. This can be explained by the improvements in coordination during early adolescence, and then individual disparities matter more than growth [52]. These findings suggest age aids physical development, but younger players may need targeted training to improve technique, agility and power.

5. Conclusions

The present study has some limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the unbalanced sex distribution, with a larger number of male players compared to female players. This imbalance may affect the interpretation of sex-related comparisons and limit the generalisability of the findings to female players. Secondly, anthropometric characteristics were not systematically collected or reported for the players, which limits the ability to contextualise performance outcomes and compare them with previous studies. Future research should aim to include more balanced samples to allow stronger conclusions regarding sex differences. However, the findings of this study provide important information for coaches and practitioners who want to optimise water polo training by addressing sex- and age-related disparities in specific technical skills.
Male players were consistently superior to female players in in-water vertical jump, shooting velocity, sprint velocity, aerobic fitness, and change of direction, indicating the need for sex-specific training strategies. Female players could benefit from targeted strength and shooting drills that emphasise technique and tactical awareness to compensate for physiological deficits. Also, coaches and researchers should acknowledge that players’ performance is related to age, which implies skill-based training regardless of age. To ensure balanced development, age-specific programs should prioritise foundational technical skills in younger players while progressively incorporating more complex tactical elements. Furthermore, continuous monitoring and adaptation of training loads are essential to address both maturation and individual progression effectively.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, F.N., S.C. and R.F.; methodology, F.N., S.C. and R.F.; validation, F.N., S.C. and R.F.; formal analysis, F.N., J.A. and F.C.; investigation, F.N., D.D.C. and A.S.M.; resources, F.N., J.A. and R.F.; data curation, F.N., D.D.C. and A.S.M.; writing—original draft preparation, F.N. and R.F.; writing—review and editing, F.N., F.C., J.A. and R.F.; visualisation, F.N.; supervision, F.N., F.C., J.A. and R.F.; project administration, F.N., S.C. and R.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of Faculty of Sport of University of Porto (CEFADE and 13.2017, 19 January 2017).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

To the water polo national teams of the Portuguese Swimming Federation.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Applsci 15 09381 g001
Figure 1. Representation of the experimental evaluations of specific technical skills.
Figure 1. Representation of the experimental evaluations of specific technical skills.
Applsci 15 09381 g001
Table 1. Descriptive statistics (mean ± SD) of specific motor abilities performance by sex.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics (mean ± SD) of specific motor abilities performance by sex.
VariablesIn-Water Vertical Jump (cm)Shot Velocity with Previous Displacement (km·h−1)Shot Velocity Without Displacement (km·h−1)10 m Sprint (s)Aerobic Fitness (m)Change of Direction (s)
Male135.4 ± 8.168.3 ± 6.468.5 ± 5.75.6 ± 0.9311.7 ± 92.13.3 ± 0.4
I.C. 95%]132.9; 137.7[]66.2; 70.3[]66.7; 70.3[]5.3; 5.8[]284.4; 339.1[]3.2; 3.4[
Female121.5 ± 6.151.0 ± 2.552.2 ± 2.96.6 ± 0.4235.7 ± 70.33.9 ± 0.4
I.C. 95%]118.6; 124.5[]49.7; 52.4[]50.6; 53.8[]6.3; 6.8[]201.9; 269.7[]3.6; 4.1[
Cohen’s d−1.82−3.05−3.191.19−0.881.4
I.C. 95%]−2.4; −1.2[]−3.8; −2.2[]−4.0; −2.3[]0.6; 1.7[]−1.4; −0.3[]0.8; 1.9[
Table 2. Descriptive statistics (mean ± SD) of specific motor abilities performance by age group and the interaction between sex and age.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics (mean ± SD) of specific motor abilities performance by age group and the interaction between sex and age.
VariablesIn-Water Vertical Jump (cm)Shot Velocity with Previous Displacement (km·h−1)Shot Velocity Without Displacement (km·h−1)10 m Sprint (s)Aerobic Fitness (m)Change of Direction (s)
Young129.9 ± 8.563.6 ± 8.763.3 ± 7.65.9 ± 1.2256.8 ± 82.93.5 ± 0.5
I.C. 95%]126.9; 132.9[]60.2; 67.0[]60.3; 66.3[]5.5; 6.3[]226.9; 286.8[]226.9; 286.8[
Adult132.8 ± 10.963.3 ± 10.564.3 ± 10.35.8 ± 0.7321.2 ± 91.63.4 ± 0.4
I.C. 95%]128.9; 136.7[]59.2; 67.3[]60.4; 68.2[]5.5; 6.0[]288.7; 353.7[]3.2; 3.5[
Interaction
Sex–age		F(1,62) = 1.961
p = 0.166
η2p = 0.031		F(1,53) = 0.898
p = 0.348
η2p = 0.017		F(1,52) = 1.399
p = 0.242
η2p = 0.026		F(1,62) = 0.183
p = 0.671
η2p = 0.003		F(1,62) = 3.383
p = 0.071
η2p = 0.053		F(1,62) = 0.761
p = 0.386
η2p = 0.012
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MDPI and ACS Style

Noronha, F.; Canossa, S.; Carvalho, D.D.; Monteiro, A.S.; Afonso, J.; Castro, F.; Fernandes, R. Sex and Age Disparities in Water Polo-Related Skills. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 9381. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179381

AMA Style

Noronha F, Canossa S, Carvalho DD, Monteiro AS, Afonso J, Castro F, Fernandes R. Sex and Age Disparities in Water Polo-Related Skills. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(17):9381. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179381

Chicago/Turabian Style

Noronha, Francisco, Sofia Canossa, Diogo D. Carvalho, Ana Sofia Monteiro, José Afonso, Flávio Castro, and Ricardo Fernandes. 2025. "Sex and Age Disparities in Water Polo-Related Skills" Applied Sciences 15, no. 17: 9381. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179381

APA Style

Noronha, F., Canossa, S., Carvalho, D. D., Monteiro, A. S., Afonso, J., Castro, F., & Fernandes, R. (2025). Sex and Age Disparities in Water Polo-Related Skills. Applied Sciences, 15(17), 9381. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179381

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