Integrated Biomimetics: Natural Innovations for Urban Design, Smart Technologies, and Human Health

Abstract

Biomimetics has emerged as a transformative interdisciplinary approach that harnesses nature’s evolutionary strategies to develop sustainable solutions across diverse fields. This study explores its integrative role in shaping smart cities, advancing artificial intelligence and robotics, innovating biomedical applications, and enhancing computational design tools. By analysing the evolution of biomimetic principles and their technological impact, this work highlights how nature-inspired solutions contribute to energy efficiency, adaptive urban planning, bioengineered materials, and intelligent systems. Furthermore, this paper discusses future perspectives on biomimetics-driven innovations, emphasising their potential to foster resilience, efficiency, and sustainability in rapidly evolving technological landscapes. Particular attention is given to neuromorphic hardware, a biologically inspired computing paradigm that mimics neural processing through spike-based communication and analogue architectures. Key components such as memristors and neuromorphic processors enable adaptive, low-power, task-specific computation, with wide-ranging applications in robotics, AI, healthcare, and renewable energy systems. Furthermore, this paper analyses how self-organising cities, conceptualised as complex adaptive systems, embody biomimetic traits such as resilience, decentralised optimisation, and autonomous resource management.

1. Introduction

Biomimetics is a revolutionary interdisciplinary approach that draws inspiration from nature’s evolutionary intelligence to develop sustainable and efficient solutions in architecture, engineering, and materials science. It mimics biological processes, structures, and systems to achieve these innovations. Biomimetics promotes innovation that aligns with ecological principles, reducing environmental impact while enhancing functionality. Unlike traditional resource-intensive methods, this approach integrates nature’s self-regulating, adaptive, and energy-efficient mechanisms, leading to breakthroughs such as self-cleaning surfaces, aerodynamic designs, and biomaterials that regenerate rather than deplete ecosystems. More than just a design philosophy, biomimetics represents a paradigm shift toward ecological harmony, proving that nature’s time-tested strategies offer not only aesthetic and functional advantages but also a sustainable blueprint for the future of human innovation. Table 1 presents the historical evolution of biomimetics, highlighting the most representative events in this field.

Alali et al. highlight that professionals in the construction industry perceive biomimicry as a means to create markets for green products, protect biodiversity, and conserve natural resources, thereby contributing to the mitigation of global warming [1]. Similarly, Jamei and Vrcelj emphasise that biomimicry can lead to vernacular designs inspired by nature, which are assessed against ecological benchmarks for sustainability [2]. This perspective is echoed by Verbrugghe et al., who argue that collaboration among biologists, architects, and engineers can yield solutions that mimic the circular resource use and energy efficiency found in natural systems [3].

Moreover, the educational aspect of biomimetics is crucial for fostering a new generation of innovators. Gencer et al. demonstrate that integrating biomimetics into STEM education helps students to understand the relationship between structure and function in organisms, thereby enhancing their problem-solving skills within the engineering design process [4]. This educational framework is supported by Stevens et al., who describe how teaching principles derived from nature can guide students in developing sustainable design strategies [5]. The emphasis on interdisciplinary learning is vital, as it bridges gaps between scientific knowledge and practical application, fostering a holistic understanding of design challenges [6].

The technological implications of biomimetics are profound, particularly in materials science and engineering. Innovations inspired by natural designs have led to advancements in various domains, including the development of biomimetic materials that replicate the properties of natural substances [7]. For instance, Lim’s study on crashworthiness in vehicle chassis illustrates how biomimetic approaches can enhance structural integrity by mimicking biological forms [8]. Furthermore, the systematic approach proposed by Lim et al. for technology development using a biomimetics-based TRIZ contradiction matrix highlights the potential for structured methodologies to connect natural solutions with technological advancements [9].

Table 1. The history of biomimetics.

Period	Key Development	Representative Example
Antiquity (~2000 BC–15th century)	First observations of nature are applied to engineering and architecture.	Egyptians imitate the lotus structure in their columns.
Renaissance (15th–17th century)	Leonardo da Vinci studies the flight of birds to design flying machines.	Codex on the Flight of Birds, 1505.
19th–early 20th century	Development of structures inspired by living organisms to improve engineering.	Eiffel Tower, based on the human femur to optimise strength.
Mid-20th century (1950–1980)	Formalisation of biologically inspired structural and mechanical studies and coining of the term biomimetics.	Otto H. Schmitt develops the formal concept of biomimicry and coins biomimetics in 1969.
1990s	Janine Benyus popularises the term ‘biomimicry’, extending its application to sustainability.	Publication of the book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature.
21st Century (2000–Present)	Expansion into nanotechnology, artificial intelligence, nanotech and surface engineering, and smart cities inspired by nature.	Self-repairing materials and sensors based on biological systems. Bar-Cohen on Biomimetics: Nature-Based Innovation [10]; Barthlott & Neinhuis; Ge-Zhang et al. on bionic superhydrophobic surfaces [11,12].

Table 1. The history of biomimetics.

Period	Key Development	Representative Example
Antiquity (~2000 BC–15th century)	First observations of nature are applied to engineering and architecture.	Egyptians imitate the lotus structure in their columns.
Renaissance (15th–17th century)	Leonardo da Vinci studies the flight of birds to design flying machines.	Codex on the Flight of Birds, 1505.
19th–early 20th century	Development of structures inspired by living organisms to improve engineering.	Eiffel Tower, based on the human femur to optimise strength.
Mid-20th century (1950–1980)	Formalisation of biologically inspired structural and mechanical studies and coining of the term biomimetics.	Otto H. Schmitt develops the formal concept of biomimicry and coins biomimetics in 1969.
1990s	Janine Benyus popularises the term ‘biomimicry’, extending its application to sustainability.	Publication of the book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature.
21st Century (2000–Present)	Expansion into nanotechnology, artificial intelligence, nanotech and surface engineering, and smart cities inspired by nature.	Self-repairing materials and sensors based on biological systems. Bar-Cohen on Biomimetics: Nature-Based Innovation [10]; Barthlott & Neinhuis; Ge-Zhang et al. on bionic superhydrophobic surfaces [11,12].

In this paper, we focused on smart cities, artificial intelligence and robotics, biomedical applications, and computational design tools because these high-impact domains showcase biomimetic principles driving transformative progress. Nature-inspired strategies bolster urban sustainability and resilience, while AI and robotics draw on biological models for adaptive autonomy. In biomedicine, natural design motifs enable regenerative therapies and advanced devices, and computational tools offer the simulation and optimisation frameworks that underpin all these innovations. These areas are also mutually reinforcing—design tools test biomimetic structures for robotics and biomedicine, AI guides real-time decision-making in smart infrastructures, and tissue-engineering insights inform adaptive materials—demonstrating biomimetics’ synergistic potential across disciplines. This study is important because it unifies biomimetic applications of smart cities, artificial intelligence and robotics, biomedicine, and computational design into a single, coherent framework. This synthesis not only clarifies why biomimetics is important in each field but also establishes a solid foundation for future research, facilitating the development of cross-disciplinary methodologies, guiding hypothesis formulation and inspiring novel biomimetic solutions drawn from lessons across sectors.

2. Biomimetics in Smart Cities

Biomimetics, when applied to the context of smart cities, offers an innovative strategy that seeks to optimise urban planning and management through solutions inspired by nature, promoting efficiency, sustainability and resilience amid environmental and social challenges. By mimicking biological mechanisms that have evolved to maximise resource use, reduce waste, and adapt to environmental changes, this approach enables the development of efficient infrastructure, sustainable mobility systems and self-sufficient buildings, thereby improving citizens’ quality of life. More than a technological trend, biomimetics embodies a model of regenerative urbanism that integrates ecological principles into the design of urban spaces, fostering harmony between urban growth and environmental preservation, thus laying the foundation for more liveable, resilient, and intelligent cities.

One of the key aspects of biomimetics in smart cities is its ability to address contemporary urbanisation and sustainability challenges. Narain [13] argues that the concept of smart cities has emerged as a transformative approach to addressing urban challenges, while promoting sustainability and enhancing quality of life, through the strategic deployment of IoT devices, data analytics, and digital infrastructure to optimise resource management and service delivery. This approach aligns with biomimetics, which seeks to learn from nature to develop more efficient and adaptive urban systems. For example, the design of infrastructure that mimics natural systems can result in more effective water and energy management, as seen in the implementation of green roofs and sustainable drainage systems that replicate ecological processes [14].

In addition, collaboration between different stakeholders is critical to the success of smart city initiatives. Franco [15] points out that the smart city model is based on the use of technologies to respond to complex challenges, which requires the active participation of citizens, businesses, and governments. This collaborative approach is essential for implementing biomimetic solutions that are effective and responsive to local needs. For example, the use of sensors and information technologies can facilitate the collection of data on citizen behaviour and resource use, thus enabling the adaptation of biomimetic solutions to specific urban contexts [16].

Education on and awareness of biomimetics play crucial roles in the transformation to smart cities. Hoz emphasises that the integration of technological tools in urban planning must be accompanied by a focus on sustainability and environmental education [14]. This implies that citizens must be informed and trained in how nature-inspired solutions can benefit their urban environment, thus fostering a culture of sustainability and active participation in the management of their cities.

Biomimetics is not limited to physical infrastructure but also extends to urban governance and citizen participation. Fernandez suggests that smart governance should integrate technology and citizen participation to improve the quality and transparency of urban management [17]. This approach can be enhanced by biomimetic solutions that promote collaboration and dialogue between citizens, facilitating the creation of a more resilient and adaptive urban ecosystem.

Vincent et al. [18] define biomimetics as a way of abstracting designs from nature to emulate and simulate natural processes for developing sustainable constructions with minimal environmental impact.

Based on Benyus [19], biomimetics has become increasingly important in architecture, owing to the availability of advanced manufacturing and construction techniques that offer great opportunities to develop innovative architectural solutions that respond more effectively to the environment, thus enabling buildings to function akin to living organisms. In particular, we can define biomimicry as the abstraction of natural models and the transfer of biological functional principles, rather than the mere replication of nature.

In particular, for sustainable construction, biomimetics has offered valuable insights into adapting natural models. This process involves translating the forms and processes of biological organisms into architecture by transferring knowledge derived from analysing natural biological strategies and engineering solutions to problems.

López Fernández et al. [20] present examples of biomimetics, such as a building envelope that adjusts to climatic changes by abstracting biomimetic designs from plant adaptations. This proposal aims to develop buildings to comply with the Technical Building Code by meeting energy demands to achieve thermal comfort according to local climatic conditions, insulation and thermal inertia, air permeability, and solar exposure, thereby reducing risks such as condensation, excessive air-conditioning use, and more.

However, despite its sustainability and environmental benefits, there are regulatory and control challenges regarding energy expenditure linked to the materials used in façades and their energy efficiency.

On the other hand, Sandoval-Ruiz [21] describes biomimetic architecture as the engineering and architecture of tissues that are integrated through the development of mathematical models in the synthesis of structural tissues with self-similar patterns. In turn, Sandoval-Ruiz [21] identifies that the immaterial architectural envelope is an object of study where electromagnetic waves (e.g., light) are reflected in the materials. As a complement to this definition, Arias [22] describes the architectural envelope as a tool for urban regeneration based on the design of environments and integrating surfaces such as astronomical water mirrors, the optimisation of spatial distributions, solar energy collection, among others.

As an example of this technology, Sandoval-Ruiz [21] mentions that the King Fahad National Library in Riyadh is integrated by an enveloping structure that symbolises protection and continuity with the main function of offering an effective restoration of buildings. The wraparound façade features a textile design inspired by traditional Arabian patterns to reduce the ambient temperature and enable the process of sunlight diffusion. This proposal seeks to improve the sustainability of the building by providing natural ventilation and energy efficiency through optimising envelopes, as analysed by Palma [23].

Architectural heritage has included various concepts used to communicate and incorporate the artisanal value of the regions of influence, as well as interpret the physical principles that give life to the work from the emotional conceptualisation of cultures and nature to structural mechanics, which connects the intellectual and emotional with the interests related to conservation and preservation, both of culture and nature, so it is proposed that the projective geometry on mathematical models is applied to the enhancement of architecture and spaces.

Estévez [24] further advocates projective-geometry methods for sunlight delimitation, light fabrics, and reconfigurable architecture, while González & Martín [25] propose resource-consumption optimisation. Together, these strategies enable the development of sustainable, regenerative architectural frameworks—drawing on tissue-engineering principles—that address environmental impact and bioclimatic requirements.

30 St Mary Axe, known as The Gherkin, employs a biomimetic natural-ventilation system inspired by the Venus’s flower basket sponge. Its tapered, double-skinned façade channels prevailing winds through interstitial shafts, reducing air-conditioning energy use by an estimated 50% [26].

Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have demonstrated fleet-wide route optimisation for autonomous shuttle services by modelling vehicle interactions on flocking algorithms originally devised for starling murmurations, yielding smoother traffic flow and reduced congestion [27].

Singapore’s Four National Taps strategy—comprising local catchment, imported water, desalination, and high-grade recycled water (NEWater)—emulates the natural hydrological cycle to ensure resilient urban water supply, with up to 40% of demand met through reclaimed wastewater [28].

Curitiba, Brazil, pioneered Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in the 1970s with bi-articulated buses, dedicated guideways, and pre-boarding fare systems. This swarm-inspired network carries over two million passengers daily and has been adopted by more than 150 cities worldwide [29].

3. Biomimetics and Artificial Intelligence

Biomimetics, also known as biomimicry—the emulation of natural systems and processes—has significantly influenced the advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) in recent years. By drawing inspiration from biological mechanisms, researchers have developed algorithms and systems that exhibit enhanced adaptability, efficiency, and problem-solving capabilities [30]. This interdisciplinary approach is particularly evident in the development of nature-inspired algorithms, autonomous robotics, and computer-vision systems, especially within the context of smart-city navigation [31].

Several AI algorithms draw directly on principles observed in natural systems: artificial neural networks, modelled on the human brain’s interconnected neurons, form the backbone of modern machine learning and underpin advances in image and speech recognition [32]; genetic algorithms mimic natural selection, evolving candidate solutions through mutation, crossover, and selection to tackle complex optimisation problems [33]; and swarm-optimisation methods, inspired by the collective behaviours of social insects such as ants and bees, employ decentralised, self-organising strategies to solve a wide range of computational challenges [34].

The fusion of biomimetics and AI has given rise to autonomous robots that replicate the behaviours and morphologies of various animals: insect-inspired robots mimic the locomotion and sensory systems of insects to navigate complex terrains with remarkable efficiency and adaptability [30]; fish-inspired robots emulate piscine swimming mechanisms for underwater exploration, offering superior manoeuvrability and energy efficiency [33]; and bird-inspired robots draw on avian flight dynamics, employing flapping-wing architectures to achieve enhanced aerodynamics and precise flight control [30].

In the context of smart cities, bioinspired vision systems emulate the visual processing mechanisms of biological organisms to enhance object detection, tracking and recognition in dynamic urban environments [31], while adaptive navigation algorithms—drawing on animals’ innate path-finding abilities—enable autonomous vehicles and drones to traverse complex cityscapes with improved efficiency and resilience [30].

The fusion of AI and biomimetics promises to yield adaptive and resilient technologies across multiple domains: bioinspired algorithms can substantially reduce energy consumption in AI systems by replicating the low-power mechanisms of biological processes [33]; the emulation of natural organisms’ adaptability enhances system robustness and flexibility, enabling AI to perform reliably in unpredictable environments [30]; and biomimetic design principles foster sustainability by encouraging resource-efficient architectures and processes that minimise environmental impact [31].

The convergence of biomimetics and AI continues to drive innovation across various fields (Figure 1). By learning from nature, researchers and engineers are developing advanced algorithms and systems that are not only efficient but also adaptable and aligned with sustainable practices.

Various studies [35,36,37] suggest that biomimetics in artificial intelligence can inspire innovative and efficient solutions by replicating natural processes and structures, enhancing energy efficiency, visual-system accuracy, and the development of advanced algorithms. However, some studies question the inherent similarity between biological systems and artificial neural networks.

3.1. Nature-Inspired Algorithms

Nature-inspired algorithms are employed to solve complex optimisation problems in science and engineering. These problems often involve non-linear constraints, posing challenges to traditional algorithms. According to Yang [38], nature-inspired algorithms are based on principles observed in natural phenomena (such as swarm behaviour or biological processes) and have gained relevance due to their flexibility and effectiveness. A key concept in these algorithms is swarm intelligence, which enables multiple autonomous elements to collaborate without the need for centralised control, resulting in high adaptability for solving complex problems.

Artificial intelligence has long drawn inspiration from biological processes to devise algorithms that balance efficiency with adaptability. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) emulate the brain’s interconnected neurons, integrating multiple nodes to process inputs and generate outputs; they underpin applications in data analysis, parallel computing, mathematical modelling, and complex process simulation across neuroscience, AI, and pharmaceutical sciences [39,40]. Genetic algorithms (GAs) borrow directly from the mechanisms of natural selection—mutation, crossover, and the survival of the fittest—to solve optimisation problems in fields ranging from route planning and financial modelling to animation and design; John Holland’s seminal work in the 1970s laid the foundation for these evolutionary techniques [41].

Similarly, Particle Swarm Optimisation (PSO) mirrors the collective foraging behaviour of birds and fish to navigate solution spaces, finding applications in telecommunications, robotics, systems control, and mathematical-function optimisation [42]. Ant Colony Optimisation (ACO) reproduces the pheromone-laying strategies of ants to discover the shortest paths in network graphs, reinforcing successful routes for subsequent agents and proving especially effective in routing, scheduling, and distributed resource management [43]. Together, these bioinspired algorithms exemplify how the observation of natural systems can yield powerful computational tools for tackling complex, real-world challenges.

3.2. Combined Applications of Biomimetics and AI

The integration of biomimetics in AI has been fundamental in developing technologies that emulate biological structures and processes, improving efficiency and functionality. This combination has led to advances in areas such as autonomous robotics and computer-vision systems within smart cities. Additionally, autonomous navigation algorithms based on animal perception have resulted in more adaptive and efficient systems inspired by nature [44]. Some of the most notable advanced technologies across various fields are outlined below.

3.2.1. Autonomous Robotics

Autonomous robotics has seen significant development through bioinspiration, taking natural organisms as a reference to optimise the navigation, adaptability, and energy efficiency of robots. From insect-inspired flying microrobots to bird-inspired drones and underwater robots that emulate the biomechanics of aquatic species, these advances have made it possible to explore new environments and improve the autonomy of robotic systems in various scenarios.

Significant progress in autonomous robotics has been achieved by emulating the navigation and adaptability skills of insects. The RoboBee project, for instance, has developed micro-flying robots powered by soft muscles based on dielectric elastomers, enabling highly efficient interactions with the environment [45]. Moreover, algorithms inspired by insect intelligence have demonstrated superior resource efficiency for small mobile robot autonomy when compared with classical methods [46,47,48,49,50]. In the marine domain, the SILVER2 robot—modelled on benthic animals—uses limb-like appendages to traverse the seabed with minimal energy consumption, facilitating exploration of hard-to-reach areas [50], while bioinspired soft robots have been designed to withstand the high pressures of the deep ocean, opening up previously inaccessible regions for study [51].

Drones have similarly benefited from avian inspiration, with recent designs incorporating morphing wings and tails that adapt their shape in flight to enhance stability and energy efficiency under changing atmospheric conditions [52]. Studies of Australian budgerigar flight have provided further insights, informing UAV control algorithms that enable safer and more effective navigation in confined or cluttered spaces [53].

3.2.2. Computer Vision Systems in Smart Cities

Computer vision systems play a key role in the development of smart cities, optimising autonomous navigation and urban monitoring by implementing biologically inspired algorithms and advanced neural networks. These technologies improve robotic orientation in complex environments and enable the real-time analysis of environmental factors, strengthening urban management and sustainability.

Autonomous navigation systems in smart cities draw directly on natural orientation strategies to enhance robotic efficiency and adaptability: for instance, algorithms modelled on desert-ant navigation allow mobile robots to orient themselves without GPS by integrating visual and motion cues [54], while hippocampus-inspired global localisation techniques employ LiDAR sensors to map and navigate unknown spaces with precision [55]. Concurrently, neural networks underpin urban monitoring by processing vast sensor data streams to identify pollutants in real time, thus aiding pollution mitigation [37], and by forecasting particulate-matter concentrations to support air-quality management and protect public health [56].

3.3. Perspectives on the Fusion of AI and Biomimetics

The fusion of AI and biomimetics has driven the development of adaptive systems with greater efficiency and flexibility, ranging from the creation of intelligent structures to human-brain-inspired learning algorithms. These innovative developments aim to improve interaction with the environment, and their implementation presents ethical and sustainability-related challenges, promoting a responsible approach to the design of emerging technologies.

Autonomous navigation systems in smart cities draw on natural orientation strategies to enhance robotic efficiency and adaptability—for instance, algorithms inspired by desert-ant navigation enable GPS-free localisation through visual and motion cues, while hippocampus-inspired global mapping techniques use LiDAR sensors for the precise exploration of unknown spaces. Concurrently, neural networks underpin urban monitoring by analysing vast sensor data to detect pollutants in real time, thereby informing pollution-mitigation efforts, and by forecasting particulate-matter concentrations to support air-quality management and public-health initiatives.

4. Innovations in Biomedicine

Innovations in biomedicine have transformed the development of materials and devices designed to enhance compatibility and functionality in medical applications (Figure 2). In this context, biomimetics has played a key role in biomaterials engineering, advanced medical devices, and tissue regeneration strategies. This section addresses the latest advances in biomaterials inspired by natural tissues, biomimetic devices, and their integration into smart urban environments.

4.1. Biomaterials Inspired by Natural Tissues

The development of innovative biomaterials that emulate the physical, chemical, and structural properties of natural tissues has been crucial in modern biomedicine, enabling the creation of materials that enhance biocompatibility, promote regeneration, and optimise the performances of medical devices. According to Majid et al. [57], the primary inspirations include spider silk and human bone and skin, whose properties have been replicated using advanced material engineering techniques. Additionally, natural biomaterials such as fibrinogen, collagen, alginate, Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), and silk show great potential in tissue engineering, particularly in cardiac applications, improving heart function after infarction and reducing mortality rates from cardiovascular diseases. The following describes some biomaterials inspired by natural tissues of greatest relevance.

Biomaterials derived from natural tissues have yielded transformative advances in medical applications: spider silk-inspired fibres, noted for their exceptional strength, elasticity, and biocompatibility, have been engineered recombinantly to produce sutures, scaffolds, and drug-delivery systems that enhance cell adhesion and proliferation [58,59]; synthetic bone scaffolds, modelled on the interconnected porosity and hydroxyapatite composition of human bone and fabricated via techniques such as 3D bioprinting, replicate both mechanical strength and bioactivity to facilitate cell migration, vascularisation, and osteointegration [60,61]; and artificial skins emulate the tactile sensing and adaptive properties of human epidermis—incorporating interactive electronic elements for ultra-sensitivity, reversible adhesion and camouflage—that underpin the development of wearable sensors for movement tracking, health monitoring, and advanced prosthetics [62,63].

4.2. Biomimetic Medical Devices

Biomimetics has revolutionised the design of medical devices by emulating the structures and functions of biological systems, thereby improving both their efficacy and compatibility. This approach has been instrumental in the development of total artificial hearts and advanced drug-delivery systems.

Total artificial hearts (TAHs) and biomimetic drug-delivery systems exemplify how emulating biological mechanisms can transform medical care: TAHs replace the human ventricles and valves using durable, flexible materials like polyurethane and an external controller to replicate continuous cardiac pumping [64]; cellular microencapsulation techniques immobilise therapeutic cells to provide the sustained release of bioactive substances, enhancing efficacy and minimising side effects [65]; polymer–drug conjugates modelled on natural macromolecular structures enable targeted, controlled release that improves bioavailability [66]; and nanoscale devices, such as nanoparticles that mimic cellular transport pathways, deliver drugs precisely to their sites of action, further optimising treatment outcomes [67].

4.3. Advanced Prosthetics and Tissue Regeneration

The development of prosthetics and tissue-regeneration strategies has advanced significantly through the incorporation of biomimetic principles. Drawing inspiration from the structure, function, and adaptive properties of natural tissues, new approaches seek not only to replace damaged body parts but also to integrate seamlessly with the host organism and respond dynamically to external stimuli [68].

Biomimetic prosthetics and tissue-regeneration strategies draw upon natural biomechanics and cellular environments to achieve seamless integration with the body: prosthetic limbs now employ materials and neural interfaces that replicate biomechanical function and provide genuine sensory feedback, allowing users to perceive tactile and pressure stimuli through direct nervous system connections [69], while regenerative approaches utilise three-dimensional scaffolds mimicking the extracellular matrix’s topography, composition, and biochemical signals to support cell adhesion, migration, and differentiation [70]. Moreover, advances in the 3D bioprinting of personalised tissues using bioinks composed of autologous cells and functional biomaterials further expand clinical possibilities by enabling the fabrication of complex, multicellular constructs tailored to individual patients [71].

4.4. Connection Between Biomedicine and Smart Cities

The integration of biomedicine and smart cities represents an emerging approach to optimising public health through the use of advanced technologies and intelligent urban infrastructure. This synergy enables real-time health monitoring systems, early diagnostics, and rapid responses to health emergencies [72]. Urban health monitoring and smart hospitals, integrated into smart cities, employ advanced technologies such as biomimetic sensors and AI, optimising healthcare management through real-time monitoring, accurate diagnostics, and preventive responses to health emergencies.

Urban health monitoring in smart cities leverages biomimetic sensor networks—modelled on biological sensory systems—to measure air quality, detect pollutants and track epidemiological trends in real time, thereby enabling health authorities to pinpoint risk areas and implement preventive measures [73]; wearable devices further enhance this framework by continuously monitoring vital signs in vulnerable populations and alerting medical services to anomalies, optimising preventive care [74]. Concurrently, smart hospitals integrate biomimetic AI—drawing on neural network–inspired algorithms—to analyse clinical data in real time, recognise complex patterns, and predict complications pre-emptively [75], while biomimetic robots, emulating human mobility and dexterity, automate logistics, disinfection, and remote patient assistance to bolster operational efficiency [76].

5. Biomimetic Robotics

The principles of locomotion and adaptation observed in nature have inspired a range of robotic applications. Robots inspired by natural organisms, often referred to as biomimetic robots, leverage biological principles to enhance their operation, design and functionality. These robots exhibit remarkable capabilities, such as increased structural resilience, efficient locomotion and advanced biomedical applications. Biomimetic robotics, also referred to as bioinspired robotics, constitutes a branch of robotic engineering that emulates biological principles observed in living organisms to develop autonomous systems that are more efficient, adaptable, and resilient. Figure 3 presents the main applications of bioinspired robots. The following sub-sections delve into the key aspects of biomimetic robotics, highlighting their inspirations and innovations.

5.1. Robots Inspired by Natural Organisms

This category of systems, inspired by natural organisms, employs biomimetic principles to enhance design and functionality by leveraging the evolutionary adaptations of various species [77]. This approach has led to significant advancements in robotics, particularly in areas such as construction, locomotion, and biomedical applications.

Biomimetic robots, such as the Bioinspired Robotic System for Adaptive Lattice Construction (BIRALC), utilise designs inspired by natural builders like wasps and termites. This robotic system achieves an up to 131% improvement in compressive strength and a 180% increase in elastic modulus compared with traditional methods [78]. Additionally, it demonstrates significant energy efficiency, reducing consumption by 42% and material waste by 80%.

Robotic fish and semi-aquatic robots exemplify the application of biomimetic principles in movement. For instance, a robotic fish designed to mimic tuna reaches speeds of 0.4 body lengths per second, optimising energy consumption through controlled tail oscillation [79]. Similarly, small-scale robots inspired by aquatic organisms utilise surface tension for effective navigation on water surfaces [80].

Bioinspired microrobots are revolutionising biomedicine by enabling targeted drug delivery and minimally invasive surgeries [81]. Their design mimics biological systems, enhancing precision and efficacy in medical applications.

While biomimetic robots hold great promise, several challenges remain in scaling these technologies for broader applications. The integration of advanced materials and the incorporation of AI and machine learning (ML) could further enhance their capabilities, bridging the gap between biological efficiency, energy optimisation, and robotic functionality.

Insect-inspired robotics and biomimetics have emerged as fundamental fields for improving exploration and rescue operations. By imitating the unique capabilities of insects, various research efforts focus on developing robots capable of navigating complex environments, making them ideal for search-and-rescue missions.

Table 2. Insect-inspired robotics in rescue missions.

Approach	Description
Agility and Adaptability	Insect-inspired robots can manoeuvre through confined spaces, which is crucial in disaster scenarios where access is limited [82].
Cyborg Insects	These robots are equipped with electronic enhancements that improve their communication and sensing capabilities, facilitating survivor recovery in challenging environments [83].
Swarm Robotics	Groups of insect-like robots can autonomously collaborate, enhancing efficiency in search operations [82].
Locomotion Strategies	Research on insect locomotion has led to the development of robots capable of climbing and overcoming obstacles efficiently, utilising adhesion-based and multimodal movement strategies [84].
Vision-Based Navigation	Systems inspired by insect visual processing have laid the foundation for the development of bioinspired models for autonomous navigation, reducing computational demands and enhancing efficiency [85].

presents a synthesis of biological principles and engineering innovations that have led to significant advancements in the design and functionality of these bioinspired robots.

While advancements in insect-inspired robotics present exciting opportunities, challenges remain in ensuring reliability and overcoming the limitations of miniaturisation and environmental adaptability. Ongoing research is essential to address these issues and fully harness the potential of these promising bioinspired technologies to tackle current challenges and demands.

Fish-inspired underwater robots are increasingly recognised for their efficient and silent movements, making them ideal for ocean exploration. These biomimetic designs leverage nature’s principles to enhance manoeuvrability and energy efficiency, which are crucial for tasks such as environmental monitoring and resource exploration.

Table 3. Fish-inspired underwater robots.

Approach	Description
Biologically Inspired Fins	Miniature robotic fish utilise oscillating fins driven by Eccentric Rotating Mass (ERM) vibration motors, achieving speeds of 1.36 body lengths per second [86].
Fluidic Actuation	Soft robotic fish employ fluidic actuators that enable three-dimensional movement, enhancing manoeuvrability compared to traditional designs [87].
Adjustable Stiffness	Tail flexibility, optimised through adjustable stiffness, mimics real fish movements, improving propulsion efficiency [88].
Versatile Use Cases	These robots are suitable for various applications, including military operations, pollution detection, and underwater exploration [89,90].
Energy Efficiency	Biologically inspired designs significantly outperform traditional robots in energy consumption, making them more sustainable for prolonged missions [91].

outlines the key aspects of these innovative bioinspired robotic systems.

While fish-inspired underwater robots currently offer numerous advantages, challenges remain—particularly the durability of materials and the robustness of control systems—that must be overcome to enhance their operational capabilities in diverse marine environments.

5.2. Industrial and Urban Applications

Another contemporary application of biomimetics is its transformative approach in industrial and urban settings, particularly in infrastructure maintenance through the development of climbing robots inspired by natural organisms. These robots enhance efficiency and sustainability in building inspection and repair by leveraging design and mechanisation principles observed in nature.

Table 4. Biomimetic robots in infrastructure maintenance.

Approach	Description
Climbing robots	Inspired by climbing organisms, these robots are designed for maintenance tasks in hard-to-reach areas, such as transmission towers and historical structures. They improve inspection efficiency and reduce labour intensity [92,93].
Technological integration	Advanced technologies, including 3D modelling and sensor fusion, enhance the operational efficiency of these robots, enabling precise localisation and motion control in complex environments [92,93].
Material efficiency	Biomimetics has led to the development of novel composite materials that mimic natural structures, such as bones and marine sponges, resulting in lightweight yet durable construction components [94].
Waste management	Innovations such as Mycocycle utilise fungi to recycle construction waste and convert it into new materials, addressing sustainability challenges in urban construction [94].

presents some of the bioinspired robotic approaches used for infrastructure maintenance.

The contributions of biomimetics to infrastructure maintenance are both innovative and significant. However, several challenges hinder its widespread adoption, including technical limitations and the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to fully harness its potential [95].

Medical care and rehabilitation have been significantly transformed by the use and integration of biomimetic devices (bioinspired robots) in the healthcare sector. These advancements not only enhance patient outcomes but also improve the efficiency of healthcare delivery by leveraging nature’s principles to enhance the functionality and adaptability of such technologies.

Table 5. Biomimetic devices in the healthcare sector.

Approach	Description
Surgical Robots	Devices such as the Da Vinci surgical robot exemplify precision and minimally invasive techniques, improving surgical outcomes [96].
Robots and Devices for Rehabilitation	Innovations such as robotic exoskeletons and soft-body robots are designed to aid patient recovery by mimicking natural movements to promote effective rehabilitation [97,98]. Li et al. [99] analyse a bioinspired triboelectric soft pneumatic actuator for hand rehabilitation, demonstrating its application in spasticity assessment and rehabilitation enhancement through a CNN-enabled robot, highlighting the potential of biomimetic devices in medical assistance and rehabilitation.
Wearable Sensors	Inspired by animal sensory systems, these devices provide real-time feedback for motor learning, which is crucial for rehabilitation [97].
Nociceptive Alarm Systems	Bioinspired artificial nociceptors can detect pain and provide alerts, enhancing patient safety and monitoring [100].

presents some key contributions of biomimetic devices in this field.

The continuous development of robots and AI-integrated nanobots promises to further revolutionise diagnostic and treatment methodologies in healthcare [98,101]. However, biomimetic robotics in the healthcare sector faces significant challenges, such as high costs, ethical concerns, and technical limitations involved in integrating these technologies into conventional medical care [98].

5.3. Additional Biomimetics Applications: Architecture, Energy, and Electronic Skin

Recent advances in biomimetic integration in architecture have been characterised by an increasing emphasis on sustainability and the emulation of natural processes. Architects are increasingly drawing inspiration from nature to create buildings that are not only aesthetically pleasing but also environmentally conscious and sustainable. This biomimetic approach involves imitating natural forms, processes, and ecosystems to address the challenges of human design. The integration of biomimetics in architecture has led to innovative design solutions that foster harmony between the built environment and the natural world, resulting in significant improvements in sustainability and the reduced environmental impact of buildings [102,103]. Biomimetic designs can enhance occupants’ health and well-being by reducing stress and increasing satisfaction with the built environment [102]. This approach also holds potential for innovation in construction materials and environmental systems by drawing from proven natural efficiency patterns [104]. Despite its potential, the widespread application of biomimetics in architecture remains limited, partly due to the lack of clear definitions and methodologies for its implementation [103,105]. Future research and development in biomimetics should focus on creating adaptable and restorative built environments that seamlessly integrate with natural ecosystems [103].

Several applications have gained notable interest in the architectural field, particularly through innovations such as self-healing concrete and phase change materials, which represent significant advances in sustainable construction practices. Self-healing concrete utilises biological agents, such as bacteria that produce calcium carbonate when exposed to water, to autonomously repair cracks, thereby improving durability and corrosion resistance and reducing maintenance costs [106,107]. This technology not only extends the lifespans of structures but also addresses environmental and economic concerns by minimising the resource consumption associated with repairs [108]. On the other hand, phase change materials (PCMs) regulate indoor temperature by absorbing and releasing thermal energy—absorbing excess heat during the day and releasing it at night—thus stabilising indoor temperatures and significantly enhancing energy efficiency in buildings [109].

Recent advances in imaging and computational simulation allow architects to analyse and replicate natural structures, facilitating the transfer of biological principles to building design [110]. Efforts have also been made to establish systematic design processes incorporating biomimetics, narrowing the gap between theory and practical application [111]. Various biomimetic approaches, such as eco-biomimetics, emphasise the importance of understanding ecosystems to create regenerative designs, focusing on integrating ecological systems into architectural design and promoting mutual benefits between humans and nature [105]. Nature’s adaptive mechanisms provide a rich database for architectural innovation, enabling designs that are not only sustainable but also restorative [103]. The integration of natural elements in architecture has been shown to improve occupant well-being, reduce stress, and increase satisfaction [102].

Biomimetics in the energy sector has led to innovative designs, especially in wind turbine blades and energy storage systems. By emulating natural structures such as whale fins and photosynthesis, researchers have developed technologies that enhance efficiency and sustainability. This approach not only addresses energy demand but also contributes to environmental conservation. The leading-edge tubercles of humpback whale fins have been studied for their aerodynamic advantages. These tubercles can increase post-stall lift by up to 115% and reduce induced drag, significantly improving wind turbine blade performance [112,113]. Turbine blade modifications with tubercles have shown a 30% increase in efficiency, especially under low wind conditions, resulting in more stable and effective energy generation [113]. This biomimetic approach extends to energy storage, where photosynthesis-inspired designs aim to develop more efficient batteries. This perspective seeks to replicate the natural process of energy conversion and storage, potentially leading to breakthroughs in sustainable energy solutions [114].

One of the most promising applications is electronic skin (e-skin), a significant advancement in biomimetics, particularly in biomedicine, where it is used for health monitoring through bionic sensors. These devices mimic the sensory functions of human skin, offering capabilities such as touch, temperature, and pressure detection. The development of e-skin has been driven by innovations in materials science, sensor technology, and integration with artificial intelligence, making it a promising tool for personalised healthcare and disease prevention. E-skin devices are designed with materials that mimic the mechanical properties of human skin, such as flexibility and elasticity, ensuring conformal contact with the body [115]. Advanced materials such as ionogels and wrinkled conductive rubber electrodes are used to create elastic and sensitive sensors capable of simultaneously detecting strain, pressure, and temperature [116]. E-skin is employed in various health monitoring applications, including exercise tracking, emotion and heart rate monitoring, and care for infants, children, and the elderly [117]. The integration of e-skin with AI enhances its ability to process complex tactile information, making it suitable for use in prosthetics and assistive devices [115]. Although e-skin has shown tremendous potential, it faces challenges such as the need to improve material properties, sensor performance, and system integration [115]. Research has focused on the development of self-healing and multifunctional e-skins that can better replicate the diverse functionalities of biological skin [118].

5.4. Technological and Ethical Barriers

Biomimetic robotics faces significant challenges and technological barriers, particularly in the development of materials, energy sources, and algorithms capable of accurately replicating living organisms. These challenges arise from the complexity of biological systems and the necessity of interdisciplinary collaboration to create effective solutions.

Regarding the development of biomimetic materials, the integration of biological and synthetic materials is crucial for the creation of effective biomimetic robots. Current research emphasises the need for materials that can mimic the properties of living tissues, such as biocompatibility and flexibility [119]. Innovations in biosynthetic robots, which utilise living materials such as cardiomyocytes, highlight the potential for enhanced functionality and adaptability in robotic systems [120].

The effective integration of cognitive and control systems in bioinspired robots presents a compelling challenge. The necessity of developing algorithms that enable robots to perceive and respond to their environments in a manner akin to living organisms remains a major obstacle. This requires advancements in artificial intelligence and multimodal bioinformation perception [120].

Despite the considerable complexity involved in replicating the efficiency and adaptability of biological systems, the development of biomimetic robotics continues to inspire innovative solutions that researchers and technologists must address.

As biomimetic robots become increasingly integrated into various sectors, ethical frameworks present an opportunity that must evolve to address the unique challenges in this field. Biomimetic robots—bio-hybrid systems combining living cells with engineered components—raise questions regarding their moral status and creators’ responsibilities [121,122]. Ensuring that robots cause no harm is a fundamental ethical principle, particularly in healthcare settings, yet defining and implementing this principle poses significant challenges for designers [123]. The absence of clear definitions regarding robots complicates accountability; for instance, if a robot causes harm, determining responsibility becomes complex [124].

Moreover, the autonomy of robots may lead to emotional bonds with humans, complicating ethical considerations, as carers may struggle to comprehend the implications of using robots that appear sentient [125]. The integration of autonomous robots in workplaces raises concerns about employment security and the quality of human interactions, particularly in caregiving roles [124].

As robots gain autonomy, questions emerge about their moral agency and the ethical implications of their decisions, especially in military applications [124]. Some argue that excessive focus on ethical concerns may hinder technological progress, suggesting the need for a balanced approach that fosters innovation while addressing ethical implications. In the short term, establishing robust ethical frameworks is expected to address the complexities of autonomy and the social impact of these technologies.

6. The Evolution and Future of Biomimetics

Biomimetics has rapidly evolved from the simple observation of nature to a driving force behind sustainable technology and design. By emulating biological principles, researchers have created innovative materials, such as anti-reflective coatings inspired by butterfly wings and dynamic-colour surfaces modelled on mollusc shells, that enhance energy efficiency and device performance in fields ranging from telecommunications to sensor technology [126].

In architecture, features borrowed from termite-mound ventilation and sponge-like structural resilience have produced buildings that optimise thermal comfort, resource use, and integration with surrounding ecosystems [127]. At the nanoscale, biomimetic approaches yield non-toxic cosmetic pigments and optically active coatings for solar cells, while industrial applications include sensors based on butterfly-wing photonics for detecting explosives and disease biomarkers in breath [128].

The biomimetics design spiral provides a methodological framework with two entry points: challenge to biology, which seeks biological analogues to solve specific human problems, and biology to design, which uses natural models to inspire new design challenges [129]. This interdisciplinary process—drawing on biologists, engineers, and designers—facilitates the translation of evolutionary solutions into technical innovations [130,131]. Ultimately, biomimetics advocates a systemic, regenerative approach that mimics nature’s cycles of renewal rather than depleting resources, positioning it as a cornerstone of future industrial design and sustainable engineering [19,132].

Quantum biomimetics [133] explores biological processes that leverage quantum effects, such as avian magnetoreception, to inspire novel quantum sensing technologies. Meanwhile, synthetic biology enables the design of living systems, such as genetically engineered bacteria, to produce functional biomimetic materials, expanding the frontiers of biofabrication.

RoboBee [134,135] mimics the flight mechanisms of insects, particularly in wing flapping and body control. However, while biological insects rely on muscle-based actuation systems, RoboBee employs dielectric elastomer actuators that mimic similar motion dynamics using lightweight, flexible materials under voltage-induced deformation. This distinction highlights both the inspiration and technological adaptation in bionic robotics. Meanwhile, synthetic biology [136] leverages genetically engineered microorganisms to produce biomimetic materials. For instance, the bacterial synthesis of polylactic acid and biopolymers offers programmable and potentially scalable routes for biofabrication.

Figure 4 contains future perspectives on biomimetics (neuromorphic hardware, self-organising urban ecosystems, biologically inspired computing).

Neuromorphic hardware is an innovative computing paradigm inspired by the structure and function of the human brain. Neuromorphic hardware is inspired by the brain’s biological mechanisms, using spike-based communication and analogue computing to achieve faster processing with lower energy consumption. Central to this architecture are memristors, which adapt their resistance based on past current flow, enabling learning-like capabilities. Neuromorphic processors (NUPs) further enhance performance by emulating neural pathways, delivering efficient, task-specific computation. Neuromorphic technology has a wide range of emerging applications across multiple fields. In robotics, it enhances sensory and control systems by mimicking human perception through bioinspired sensors. In artificial intelligence, it supports the development of more efficient and adaptable learning algorithms modelled on biological neural networks. In biomedicine, neuromorphic hardware enables low-power, real-time data processing for advanced medical devices. Additionally, in renewable energy systems, it contributes to optimising energy production and distribution by enabling smarter, adaptive control mechanisms.

Self-organising urban ecosystems are systems in which cities evolve and adapt dynamically without human intervention or centralised control. Rooted in principles of complexity, resilience, and sustainability, this concept refers to urban environments capable of self-regulation, autonomous resource optimisation, and adaptive responses to changing conditions. The concept of self-organising urban ecosystems is grounded in key principles such as self-organisation, where cities function as complex adaptive systems that evolve through local interactions without central control. These ecosystems prioritise resilience, maintaining functionality in the face of disruptions, and sustainability, seeking a balance between economic, environmental, and social goals through efficient resource use and renewable integration. Additionally, they rely on adaptive management strategies that enable real-time responses to changing urban conditions, promoting long-term viability and autonomy.

Biologically inspired computing is a multidisciplinary field that draws on principles from biological systems to develop innovative technologies across various domains. In robotics, bioinspired sensors enhance perception and control mechanisms; in artificial intelligence, algorithms modelled on biological neural networks enable more efficient and adaptive learning. In biomedicine, low-power devices capable of real-time data processing support personalised diagnostics and treatments. In renewable energy systems, this approach optimises production and distribution through adaptive control strategies. While the potential is substantial, practical implementation faces challenges such as scalability, performance benchmarking against traditional methods, and ethical considerations, highlighting the need for deeper exploration of its applications and limitations.

7. Challenges and Obstacles in the Incorporation of Biomimetics

The incorporation of biomimetics across various fields of knowledge presents multiple challenges that researchers must address to fully harness its potential. Generally, these challenges arise from the high complexity of biological systems, the need for advanced computational methods, and the translation of innovative designs into practical applications, along with ethical concerns regarding the impact of technology on natural ecosystems and the responsibility of designers to ensure sustainable practices.

In the domain of smart cities, the integration of biomimetics presents several obstacles that hinder its effective application. One major issue is the lack of sufficient biological understanding necessary to implement effective biomimetic strategies, compounded by the scarcity of established methodologies for converting biomimetic concepts into practical urban applications [137], which limits the capacity for innovation and the implementation of bioinspired solutions in urban contexts. Another perceived challenge relates to the complexity of human social attributes, the necessity of interdisciplinary collaboration, and the difficulty of effectively emulating biological systems in urban environments, which may not directly translate into urban planning requirements. In essence, the multifaceted nature of cities requires a nuanced approach that considers human behaviour alongside ecological principles [138,139].

In the field of AI and its integration with biomimetics, the anticipated challenges pertain to combining diverse techniques in robotic systems to enhance performance, which demands a seamless interaction between biomimetic designs and AI algorithms [140]. The need for accurate simulations and the management of large datasets complicates the integration of High-Performance Computing (HPC) in biomimetics, as researchers must align computational models with biological complexities [141]. In the energy context, AI systems must be designed with energy limitations in mind, especially for extreme environments, raising challenges for energy supply and effective energy management [142]. Furthermore, the convergence of biomimetics and AI raises ethical issues regarding the impact of technology on natural ecosystems and the responsibility of designers to ensure sustainable practices [143].

In robotics, integrating biomimetics presents numerous challenges. Despite its potential to revolutionise robotic systems by mimicking biological processes to improve adaptability, efficiency, and interaction capabilities, researchers face technical, interdisciplinary, and practical barriers that require a comprehensive approach to overcome. Biological systems have evolved over millions of years, resulting in highly complex and efficient mechanisms that are difficult to replicate in robotic systems. The challenge lies in accurately mimicking these intricate processes and biological structures in a way that is functional and efficient in robots [144,145]. Another significant challenge involves the development of robots capable of integrating various biomimetic technologies, such as perception, cognition, and control, into a cohesive system, requiring advanced algorithms and control systems capable of processing and responding to complex environmental stimuli [140]. Biomimetics is inherently interdisciplinary, involving biology, engineering, physics, and information sciences. Effective collaboration across these fields is essential but can be challenging due to differing methodologies and terminologies [146]. Creating materials that mimic the flexibility and resilience of biological tissues is a major obstacle. These materials must be durable and capable of complex movements, requiring advances in material science [144]. Implementing biomimetic designs in a cost-effective and scalable manner also presents difficulties. The complexity of these systems often entails high development costs, which may hinder their widespread adoption [146]. Furthermore, the development of humanoid robots raises ethical concerns regarding their societal role and potential impacts on employment and privacy [145].

In the biomedical field, the challenges of incorporating biomimetics are multifaceted and involve technical, regulatory, and interdisciplinary collaboration issues. Despite these obstacles, biomimetics holds great promise for advancing personalised medicine and improving therapeutic outcomes. Biomimetic materials, such as injectable gels, face issues related to mechanical resilience and controlled degradation rates, which are critical for their functionality in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine [147]. Biomimetic Delivery Systems (BDSs) encounter challenges in achieving reproducibility and physiological stability, which are essential for consistent therapeutic administration [148]. The development and production of biomimetic materials require collaboration across diverse scientific disciplines, whose coordination can be difficult but is essential for innovation and overcoming technical barriers. This is further hindered by the lack of scalable and cost-effective manufacturing techniques, which limits their widespread application [119,140,147,148]. Additionally, the innovative nature of biomimetic systems necessitates the evolution of existing regulatory and ethical frameworks to ensure their safety and efficacy in clinical settings, requiring rigorous assessments of efficacy and safety that are often resource- and time-intensive [148].

The integration of biomimetics into architecture has demonstrated promising and innovative solutions for infrastructure, such as self-healing concrete and phase change materials (PCMs); however, challenges to its widespread implementation persist, including cost, scalability, and the need for further research to optimise its effectiveness in diverse environments. Future research and development in the field of biomimetics should focus on creating adaptive and restorative built environments that integrate seamlessly with natural ecosystems [103].

Despite the perceived challenges, the potential benefits of biomimetics for enhancing urban resilience and sustainability are substantial, suggesting that overcoming these barriers may lead to transformative urban design solutions. The synergy between biomimetics and AI also holds considerable promise for technological and sustainable innovation. However, the complexity of biological systems and the ethical implications of their emulation require careful consideration. While biomimetics offers promising directions for robotics, it necessitates addressing multifaceted challenges. The field continues to evolve, driven by interdisciplinary research aimed at unlocking its full potential. Addressing these issues through interdisciplinary collaboration and technological advances, such as 3D bioprinting and nanotechnology, may unlock biomimetics’ full promise in biomedicine. Ongoing research into integrating biomimetic materials with regenerative medicine and neural interfaces presents transformative possibilities for personalised healthcare solutions [119,147].

8. Conclusions

The conclusion of this paper underscores the transformative role of biomimetics as an interdisciplinary discipline that harnesses nature’s evolutionary strategies to develop sustainable solutions across diverse domains. The exploratory study demonstrates how biomimetics integrates its principles into four key areas: smart cities, advances in AI and robotics, innovative biomedical applications, and computational design tools. By tracing the evolution of biomimetic principles and their technological impact, this work highlights how nature-inspired solutions contribute to energy efficiency, adaptive urban planning, bioengineered materials, and intelligent systems.

Furthermore, this paper discusses future perspectives on biomimetic-driven innovation, emphasising its potential to foster resilience, efficiency, and sustainability in ever-evolving technological landscapes. This suggests that biomimetics not only serves as a valuable resource for tackling complex environmental and social challenges but is also increasingly vital in shaping future technological strategies aimed at mitigating the adverse impacts of contemporary development and steering us towards a more sustainable future.

To advance this agenda, it is essential to establish consortia and working groups that bring together biologists, engineers, architects, computer scientists, and public-policy experts. Such teams could design pilot projects in both urban and rural settings to test integrated biomimetic solutions across mobility, energy management, healthcare, and materials. Moreover, the creation of training centres and “bio-hacking” laboratories would foster knowledge transfer between academia and industry, accelerating the application of nature-inspired strategies. In doing so, not only would a sustainable innovation ecosystem be cultivated, but foundations would also be laid for policies and regulations that enable the widespread adoption of biomimetic technologies for the benefit of society as a whole.

While biomimetic technologies have shown remarkable promise across various domains, their long-term success depends not only on performance and innovation but also on overcoming key practical and industrial barriers. Among these, scalability and large-scale manufacturability stand out as critical factors that will determine the viability of widespread adoption. Despite significant advances in the design and functionality of biomimetic materials, scalability remains a major bottleneck in their industrial implementation. For example, synthetic spider silk proteins [10,149]—renowned for their strength and flexibility—are extremely costly to produce at scale due to the complexity of recombinant production processes and low yield. Additionally, many biomimetic materials require specialised fabrication methods, such as nanoscale patterning or surface modification, which are not yet feasible for high-volume manufacturing. Addressing these issues will require further innovation in biofabrication techniques and cost-effective production methods to bridge the gap between laboratory research and real-world application.

The convergence of bionic technologies across distinct domains such as smart cities, biomedicine, and robotics presents a compelling opportunity for systemic integration. For instance, bioinspired sensors deployed within urban infrastructure—originally intended for environmental monitoring or structural diagnostics—can be leveraged to capture human-centred data, such as respiratory activity, gait irregularities, or thermal patterns in public spaces. When coupled with wearable robotic systems or ambient assistive technologies, these data streams enable early health anomaly detection, population-level wellbeing analytics, and context-aware intervention strategies. Such interdisciplinary coupling not only enhances the operational intelligence of smart cities but also fosters a unified platform for preventive healthcare, inclusive mobility, and responsive urban design. This synergy underscores the transformative potential of biomimetic technologies as scalable, multifunctional assets in next-generation urban ecosystems.