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Article

Comparison of Motivation Types, Self-Assessment of Sport Skills, and Fitness Among Young Adolescents Regarding Additional Physical Activity

by
Dagny Adamczak
* and
Michał Bronikowski
Department of Didactics of Physical Activity, Poznan University of Physical Education, 61-871 Poznan, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(13), 7043; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137043 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 19 May 2025 / Revised: 13 June 2025 / Accepted: 18 June 2025 / Published: 23 June 2025
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Abstract

Background: Many studies examine young adolescents’ motivation for physical activity (PA), but few explore the problem in depth, considering the self-assessment of sport skills or the impact of additional PA. Insufficient PA among adolescents is a significant global issue. This study aimed to analyze the differences in types of motivation, the self-assessment of sports skills, and overall fitness among young adolescents with regard to additional PA. Material and Methods: A sample of high school students (n = 355) was assessed using an MPAM-R questionnaire, a self-developed sport skills competency test, and an IFIS questionnaire. Results: There are significant differences in types of motivation between genders: girls achieved higher results in terms of appearance, whereas boys were mostly focused on enjoyment and competence. Additionally, participants who reported engaging in additional PA, regardless of gender, achieved higher results in nearly all types of motivation, except for social. The findings consistently highlight a strong emphasis on appearance among young adolescents. The self-assessments of sports skills and overall fitness were also higher in the group of participants with additional PA. The study revealed further differences between boys and girls in the assessment of tactical and technical skills. Boys rated themselves higher in team sports, whereas girls in individual activities such as gymnastics. Conclusions: These results provide new insights into teenagers’ motivations and self assessment of sport skills and can serve as a solid foundation for further research for developing activities aimed at increasing leisure-time PA among youth.

1. Introduction

Evidence indicates that a sedentary lifestyle leads to numerous diseases, including type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, certain cancers, and reduced life expectancy [1]. Regular physical exercise not only improves mental health but also enhances self-assessment, life satisfaction, and protects against depression and anxiety [2,3,4]. Insufficient PA is a global problem [5].
Many studies indicate that PA declines during adolescence [6], often due to competing activities, such as increasing screen time and addictions like TikTok. Currently, nearly one in five adolescents (324 million, 18%) are affected by overweight or obesity issues [7]. A comprehensive dataset involving students from 146 countries revealed that 81% of 11- to 17-year-olds are physically inactive [8], much like The Global Matrix Report [9]. In Poland, only 16.8% of children meet the WHO PA recommendation of 60 min per day, and 94% fail to demonstrate a satisfactory level of fundamental motor skills [10].
What could be the source of this huge problem? The increase in daily sedentary time can be attributed to technological advancements and environmental changes [11]. According to the latest data, more teenagers now spend four or more hours in front of screens [11]. The COVID-19 pandemic is another contributing factor, with PA levels among adolescents dropping by a total of 90 min per day [12]. Research showed that over 50% of teenagers reduced their PA during the pandemic in favour of screen time [13,14]. Environmental factors also play a role in promoting or discouraging PA [5,15]. Other factors include a lack of free time, laziness, and competing obligations, which further decrease PA levels [16,17].
On the other hand, children most frequently cite competition, social approval, affiliation, and fun as the key factors that encourage PA [16,17].
Another aspect to consider is motivation. The success of adolescents in sports activities is determined by a complex interplay of individual personality traits and socio-psychological factors [18,19]. A child’s motivation is influenced by the behaviours of parents, teachers, and peer groups, all of which significantly impact PA later in adulthood [20]. According to self-determination theory, satisfying basic psychological needs and fostering more self-determined motivation can enhance the desire to be physically active among student [21]. Deci and Ryan divided motivation into intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation [20]. Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in activities for external rewards or separable outcomes, which can lead to faster burnout [20]. Intrinsic motivation is characterized by enjoyment, competence, and social affiliation, while controlled motivation focuses on appearance and fitness [22]. A teacher’s aim should be to cultivate intrinsic motivation, which is associated with a higher level of satisfaction from participation in activities [23].
Research suggests that boys are generally more motivated to engage in PA than girls [20]. Motives for participation in PA often overlap with behavioural regulation, but also with social identity, because the group of social reference could also be a part of self-esteem building and a strong determinant of health-related behaviours [24]. Frederick and Ryan [25] were the first authors to conduct a systematic analysis of motives for PA, identifying three core motives: body-related factors, competence factors, and intrinsic factors. In 1997, Ryan [25] consolidated these motives into a revised measurement scale composed of five motives: two extrinsically/controlled-oriented (appearance and health/fitness) and three intrinsically/autonomously oriented motives (social interaction, competence, and enjoyment [26].
Developing accurate self-assessment can improve students’ intrinsic motivation, engagement, and learning outcomes [27]. Self-assessment is not just about checking answers on a multiple-choice test; it involves evaluating the quality and way of thinking during learning and seeking strategies to improve understanding and skills [25]. Students who believe they can successfully complete a task are more motivated and engaged. Consequently, teachers and tutors play a crucial role in creating effective self-assessment by establishing clear learning targets and criteria. Research by Schunk and Zimmerman [28] indicates that students achieved more when they set specific goals for themselves. Once students understand the criteria, they should be given space to evaluate their performance and critically reflect on it [27]. In general, research indicates that boys tend to have higher self-assessments in areas such as personal mastery and athletic competence [29].
The aim of this research was to identify the differences between boys and girls in terms of motivation for PA, focusing on after-school sports activities and self-assessments of tactical and technical sports skills.
The participants were adolescents—a group often considered problematic from a PA perspective. Understanding their motives in greater detail can assist teachers, coaches, and others in encouraging them to be active. While there is a substantial body of research on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in adolescents, there is a lack of detailed information on motives and self-assessments of sports skills, which significantly influence participation in PA.
The following research questions were posed:
  • Is there any difference in types of motivation between adolescent boys and girls with respect to participation in additional after-school sports activities?
  • Is there any difference in self-assessment of tactical and technical sports skills between adolescent boys and girls with respect to participation in after-school sports activities?
  • Is there any difference in self-assessed overall physical fitness between adolescent boys and girls with respect to participation in additional after-school sports activities?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

The participants comprised students of the three randomly selected high schools from the municipality of city of Poznan (n = 355, 52.1% girls). The average age was 15.5 ± 0.67 years. The average BMI was 20.6 ± 5.60. In total, 58.9% of girls and 48.3% of boys declared taking part in after-school leisure-time activities. The statistical power exceeded 99% for detecting medium (r = 0.3) and large (r = 0.5) effect sizes. Given that the minimum required sample size to achieve this level of power was approximately 100 participants, the actual sample size of 355 indicates that the study was sufficiently powered to detect meaningful group differences.

2.2. Research Design

In our research we used observational, cross-sectional study design with data collected at one point in time in a group of randomly selected respondents. The main research method (survey) was implemented with the use of a set of questionnaires, described in the next sections.The study was carried out in the 2024/25 school year (Figure 1).

2.3. Motivation

Level of motivation was established with the use of the Motivation for Physical Activities Measure-Revised (MPAM-R) questionnaire Ryan et al. 1997 [30]. The scale consists of 30 items/reasons to engage in PA. It measures five types of motives: enjoyment, competence, appearance, fitness, and social. The scale ranged from 1 (not at all true of me) to 7 (very true of me). The reliability alpha Cronbach co-efficient for each of the subscales was 0.93 for enjoyment, 0.91 for competence, 0.87 for appearance, 0.84 for fitness, and 0.81 for social [23].

2.4. Sport Skills Competency

A self-developed scale consisting of 10 questions was used to assess the level of sport competency in selected sport activities. The first four items concerned a self-assessment of the level of technical and tactical skills in different team sports like volleyball, basketball, handball, and football, whereas the next three items concerned individual sports: athletics, gymnastic, and swimming. In the last three, participants assessed only technical skill, because the range of tactical skills in individual sports at the high-school level of education is usually limited. The range of the assessment scale was from 1—very poor, to 7—very good. An average mean was calculated separately for technical and tactical skills in four team sports and three individual sports. For the subscale of technical skills, the alpha Cronbach was 0.68, and for the subscale of tactical skill it was 0.67.

2.5. The International Fitness Scale (IFIS)

Self-reported physical fitness was assessed using the IFIS questionnaire, which consists of five closed questions (items) about overall physical fitness, cardiorespiratory, muscular fitness, speed/agility, and flexibility levels. From among the five items, we have only used the one concerning self-reported overall physical fitness. The response scale was 1 to 5 (1—very poor to 5—very good) for all the answers. An average mean score was calculated for this particular item. The reliability of IFIS items was also good, i.e., average weighted Kappa = 0.70 [31].

2.6. Statistical Analysis

Due to the lack of normal distribution within the data, (Shapiro–Wilk test) for inner group analyses the U-Mann–Whitney test was run separately for groups of girls and boys and additionally between the gender groups. Mean and standard deviation values were calculated in case of the level of technical and tactical skills in individual and team sports. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05.
All the analyses were performed with the use of the STATISTICA 13.1 software package (Stat Soft Polska sp. z o.o.2021) and G*Power 3.1.9.7.

3. Results

The comparison of types of motivation between adolescent girls and boys (Table 1) revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) in all motives, except for fitness and social ones. Boys scored higher in motives of interest/enjoyment and competence, while girls scored higher only in the case of appearance.
The comparison of different types of motivation between boys and girls regarding participation in after-school sports activities (Figure 2) showed that girls who participated in additional sports activities had significantly higher results (p < 0.05) in almost all types of motivation, except for appearance and social aspects. In contrast, boys had higher results in all motives, except for the social one. In both groups, the greatest difference between those participating in after-school sports and those not participating was observed in the types of interest/enjoyment and competence, a pattern that was consistent across both genders.
The comparison of self-assessment across different skill levels (Table 2) revealed significant differences in particular sports. In football, both technical and tactical skills were more highly self-assessed by boys (p < 0.05), which aligns with the fact that football is more popular among males, who practice it more frequently. Conversely, girls rated their technical gymnastic skills higher (p < 0.05). The lowest self-assessment scores for skills were observed among girls in football, both for technical and tactical skills, with the differences in assessment levels being statistically significantly lower compared to boys (p < 0.05). Boys also rated themselves the lowest in technical gymnastics skills, with their self-assessment significantly lower than that of girls (p < 0.05). In terms of tactical skills, handball was where the boys felt least competent, although the average self-assessment score was similar to that of girls. Both groups felt most competent in volleyball skills (both technical and tactical) and swimming.
A comparison of the self-assessments indicated that adolescents who participated in additional after-school sports activities scored higher in both technical and tactical skills, regardless of gender (p < 0.05). Table 3 shows that both active girls and active boys rated their technical skills higher than their peers who did not engage in after-school sports. Boys in the group with additional after-school sports activities also rated their tactical skills higher compared to the non-active male peers (p < 0.05).
The results of the IFIS questionnaire indicate that students who participated in additional sports activities—both boys and girls—rated their overall fitness significantly higher than those who did not engage in additional after-school sports activities. Among boys, those involved in additional after-school sport activities had an average score of M = 4.1 ± 0.70, which was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the score of boys who did not participate in such activities (M = 3.4 ± 0.98). A similar significant pattern (p < 0.05) was observed among girls. Active girls (M = 3.9 ± 0.79) assessed their overall fitness as higher than those who had no after-school sports activities (M = 3.2 ± 0.66).

4. Discussion

The purposes of this study were to compare both types of motivation and the self-assessments of sports skills among adolescent boys and girls in relation to additional sports activities. The findings indicate notable gender differences. In general, boys scored significantly higher in motivational factors such as competence and enjoyment, whereas girls scored higher only in the appearance factor. The issue of girls focusing on body image has been under discussion for years [32,33,34]. This focus can serve as both a resource and a risk factor [26,35,36,37]. The “female athlete paradox” highlights how physical traits, such as broad shoulders in swimming or muscular thighs in sports like football or equestrianism, are often not perceived as traditionally attractive [38,39,40]. However, recent research has noted an increasing popularity of the athletic body ideal among both young men and women [41]. Body shape remains one of the most significant motivational factors for women to participate in sport activities [42]. Another statistically significant difference in the motivational factor of appearance was observed among the group of active boys. This focus on body shape may be one of the outcomes of social media influence, which often promotes an “ideal body shape.” Teenagers, particularly girls, may feel pressure from social media to change their appearance [43]. In contrast, boys are more inclined to compete, and achieving an ideal body shape may help them feel more confident and accepted within their peer groups [44].
Boys’ higher scores in competence and enjoyment (with social factors also showing statistical trends, p = 0.06) may stem from their participation in community sports, which allows them to develop these aspects simultaneously [45,46]. Similar differences were observed by Soares, Anntunes, and van den Tillaar in their 2013 study [45] and in the research on Australian youth [47], where boys appeared more focused on playing games and achieving results to gain popularity and the respect of their peers. The data show that, in both genders, there were significant differences in the factors of interest/enjoyment, competence, and fitness among participants who declared participation in additional sports activities. It seems that engaging in extra sports activities may enhance competence, and improved competence likely brings more enjoyment. Research has shown that enjoyment, more than health benefits, is a factor in driving participation in PA [46,48]. Our findings align with this theory.
The higher level of competence reported by both genders (even more than fitness) highlights a critical issue: teenagers generally exhibit low health awareness. As other studies suggest, adolescents often fail to fully comprehend the lifelong impact of maintaining good health [49]. They frequently associate being healthy with having a slim body. However, the findings of our study, which indicate higher fitness levels among adolescents who participate in additional after-school activities, suggest that this group is more aware of the importance of PA for general well-being.
The self-assessment of technical and tactical sports skills and potential differences between boys and girls was another research issue. The data show that boys assessed their technical and tactical skills in football significantly higher, whereas girls scored higher in technical skills in gymnastics. Boys generally tend to rate their abilities higher across all sports [50], a trend also observed in our study.
Societal beliefs still strongly influence perceptions of sports suitability for each gender [51]. Football and other team sports are predominantly viewed as “boys’ sports”, which likely explains their popularity among boys, who often start training at a very young age, even during their leisure time. Stereotypes further perpetuate the notion that activities like dance or gymnastic might “make” boys appear less masculine, as suggested by Olszewski in 2008 [52]. This cultural bias may be one reason why boys are less inclined to participate in gymnastics, leading to lower self-assessment scores in this discipline in our study.
These findings align with the research of Madejski and Jaros [53], which demonstrated that boys are primarily interested in ball-based team games, much more so than girls. Similarly, Vilhjalmsson and Kristjansdottir [46] found that boys outnumber girls in competitive, team-orientated, and high-intensity sports and exercises (e.g., football, baseball, basketball, handball, bicycling, and weightlifting), while girls prefer individual activities such as dancing, walking, and fitness.
This study examines differences in the average assessment of technical and tactical skills between boys and girls regarding additional sports activities after school. The data shows a significant difference in technical skills for both genders, favouring the groups participating in additional PA during their leisure time. Among boys with additional after-school sports, higher results were observed compared to those with no additional PA. In general, a physically active lifestyle may improve self-esteem, aligning with the findings of research conducted on college students by Shang, Dong Xie, and Yong Yang [50]. It is well-established that practice improves skills. The significantly higher tactical skills observed in the group of active boys are probably the result of more frequent participation in team sports, where tactical skills are crucial [50]. Since girls participate in competitive team sports less frequently, such differences did not emerge in their results.
In addition, our study compared the self-assessment of overall fitness between boys and girls regarding additional sports activities. The data shows that participants from the group with additional sports activities scored higher on the assessment scale than those from the group with no additional PA, regardless of gender. This difference reinforces the conclusion that active adolescents assess their fitness more highly and, perhaps, when feeling fitter, they are more open to being physically active [54]. These findings are consistent with research, indicating that even among individuals with obesity, those who are physically active demonstrate higher estimated VO2max values compared to their inactive counterparts [55].
This study has some strengths and limitations. A primary limitation is its cross-sectional design, which restricts the ability to draw causal conclusions from the observed associations. Another important limitation is the reliance on self-reported data, which introduces the risk of response bias. Adolescents may either consciously or unconsciously overestimate or underestimate their motivations and fitness. Although self-assessment tools are commonly used in behavioural and educational research, their subjective nature may affect the reliability and validity of the results. Furthermore, the study did not account for certain contextual and environmental variables. Despite these limitations, the study has notable strengths. The relatively large sample size provides sufficient statistical power and enhances the generalizability of the results. Additionally, the random selection of participants from multiple schools reduces the risk of sampling bias. Future research should consider incorporating objective measurements of PA and health, as well as exploring longitudinal patterns of motivation and skill development, to provide deeper insight into the observed relationships.
In conclusion, it can be stated that the study provides important insights for PE teachers of adolescents aged 15–16, highlighting the role of motivation in increasing after-school sports engagement. Key findings show that girls at this age are primarily motivated by appearance, while boys focus on competition and enjoyment. There is a concerning lack of motivation regarding health and fitness, which is vital for developing lifelong PA habits. The study also reveals significant gender differences in the self-assessment of skills, with boys feeling more confident in this matter. The low self-assessment of technical and tactical skills among girls indicates gender differences and reinforces stereotypes that boys are more inclined towards team sports, whereas girls tend to prefer individual activities.
It suggests the need for tailored physical education programmes and emphasizes the importance of health education, as well as parental and teacher monitoring to address body image issues. Additionally, non-active adolescents rated their skills and fitness lower than their active counterparts, indicating a need for further research.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.A. and M.B.; methodology M.B. and D.A.; validation D.A.; formal analysis D.A.; investigation D.A.; resources D.A.; data curation D.A. and M.B.; writing—original draft preparation D.A.; writing—review and editing D.A. and M.B.; visualization D.A.; supervision M.B.; project administration D.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The research was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the University of Medical Sciences, Poznan (decision number: 919/23). All participants were informed about the voluntary nature of their participation in the research and that they could withdraw at any time. Consent was obtained after participants were assured of the anonymity of data collected and informed that the data would only be used for publications and reports. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki regulations (2013 version).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the participants to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Julius Grocholski for the professional English language proofreading.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
PAPhysical Activity

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Applsci 15 07043 g001
Figure 1. Flow chart of methodology.
Figure 1. Flow chart of methodology.
Applsci 15 07043 g001
Applsci 15 07043 g002
Figure 2. Comparison of types of motives between boys and girls in regard to participation in after-school sport activities based on MPAM-R. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.
Figure 2. Comparison of types of motives between boys and girls in regard to participation in after-school sport activities based on MPAM-R. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.
Applsci 15 07043 g002
Table 1. Comparison in types of motives between boys and girls based on MPAM-R.
Table 1. Comparison in types of motives between boys and girls based on MPAM-R.
MotivesGirls
(n = 185)
M ± SD		Boys
(n = 170)
M ± SD		p
Interest/Enjoyment30.6 ± 10.4835.4 ± 9.210.01
Competence30.9 ± 10.0834.4 ± 8.820.02
Appearance29.8 ± 8.8527.5 ± 9.380.01
Fitness25.3 ± 6.3126.3 ± 5.430.21
Social18.9 ± 7.3820.3 ± 7.310.06
M—mean; ±/SD—standard deviation; n—sample size; p—probability value.
Table 2. Comparison in self-assessment of technical and tactical skills between boys and girls.
Table 2. Comparison in self-assessment of technical and tactical skills between boys and girls.
Girls (n = 185)
M ± SD		Boys (n =1 70)
M ± SD		p
TECHNICAL SKILLS
volleyball4.3 ± 1.444.3 ± 1.290.90
basketball3.8 ± 1.364.0 ± 1.470.30
football2.6 ± 1.694.2 ± 1.850.01
handball3.1 ± 1.693.4 ± 1.520.07
athletics 3.7 ± 1.833.7 ± 1.710.91
gymnastics3.7 ± 1.972.8 ± 1.560.01
swimming4.8 ± 1.784.5 ± 1.780.06
TACTICAL SKILLS
volleyball4.2 ± 1.724.3 ± 1.550.41
basketball3.5 ± 1.503.9 ± 1.690.06
football2.6 ± 1.704.4 ± 1.970.01
handball3.1 ± 1.723.2 ± 1.790.58
Table 3. Comparison of the average self-assessment scores in technical and tactical skills between boys and girls in regard to after-school sports activity.
Table 3. Comparison of the average self-assessment scores in technical and tactical skills between boys and girls in regard to after-school sports activity.
GirlsBoys
Additional After-School Sports Activity
(n = 109)
M ± SD		No Sport Activity After School
(n = 76)
M ± SD		pAdditional After-School Sports Activity (n = 82)
M ± SD		No Sport Activity After School
(n = 88)
M ± SD		p
Technical skills3.9 ± 0.973.4 ± 1.040.024.1 ± 0.983.6 ± 1.060.01
Tactical skills3.4 ± 1.193.3 ± 1.110.514.2 ± 1.253.7 ± 1.270.01
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Adamczak, D.; Bronikowski, M. Comparison of Motivation Types, Self-Assessment of Sport Skills, and Fitness Among Young Adolescents Regarding Additional Physical Activity. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 7043. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137043

AMA Style

Adamczak D, Bronikowski M. Comparison of Motivation Types, Self-Assessment of Sport Skills, and Fitness Among Young Adolescents Regarding Additional Physical Activity. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(13):7043. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137043

Chicago/Turabian Style

Adamczak, Dagny, and Michał Bronikowski. 2025. "Comparison of Motivation Types, Self-Assessment of Sport Skills, and Fitness Among Young Adolescents Regarding Additional Physical Activity" Applied Sciences 15, no. 13: 7043. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137043

APA Style

Adamczak, D., & Bronikowski, M. (2025). Comparison of Motivation Types, Self-Assessment of Sport Skills, and Fitness Among Young Adolescents Regarding Additional Physical Activity. Applied Sciences, 15(13), 7043. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137043

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