Blockchain in Sports: A Comparative Analysis of Applications and Perceptions in Football and Basketball

Abstract

Blockchain technology is reshaping the sports industry by enhancing transparency, data security, and fan engagement through applications such as smart contracts, tokenized sponsorships, and decentralized ticketing. This study investigates blockchain adoption in Romanian team sports, specifically football and basketball, through a comparative analysis based on a survey of 293 sports professionals (213 from football and 80 from basketball). Using structural equation modeling (SEM) with SmartPLS and cluster analysis in SPSS, the study explores the perceived benefits of blockchain and its relationship with athlete performance. The findings reveal distinct adoption patterns: football shows higher use of blockchain in ticketing and fan engagement, while basketball leads in performance analytics and financial support mechanisms. Statistically significant differences were confirmed through MANOVA, and clustering revealed varied stakeholder perceptions across professional roles. Benchmarking against sectors like finance and healthcare highlights transferable best practices for blockchain integration in sports.

1. Introduction

Blockchain technology—originally developed for secure digital transactions—has rapidly evolved into a transformative tool across industries, including finance, healthcare, and supply chains. Its core features—decentralization, immutability, and transparency—address pressing issues such as fraud, data tampering, and centralized control. In the sports sector, however, blockchain’s integration remains in its infancy despite its potential to revolutionize areas like ticketing, athlete data management, fan engagement, and sponsorship [1,2].

High-profile examples such as UEFA’s blockchain ticketing at EURO 2020 and NBA Top Shot’s NFT collectibles illustrate the growing interest in blockchain within professional sports. These innovations point to a broader shift in how sports organizations interact with fans, manage assets, and govern operational processes. Yet, academic research exploring these trends—especially across different sports disciplines—is limited. Most existing studies are either theoretical or focus on isolated applications within a single sport, lacking comparative or empirical depth [1].

The sports industry is utilizing advanced technologies like IoT, AI, and sensor systems to enhance performance and fan experiences [3,4]. However, challenges like transparency, data security, and centralized governance hinder their full optimization [5,6]. Blockchain offers solutions like decentralization, privacy, and secure ticketing, empowering fans and generating new revenue streams [7,8,9,10].

This study aims to bridge that gap by conducting a comparative analysis of blockchain adoption in football and basketball, two of the most prominent team sports in Romania. Our research investigates how professionals in these sports perceive and utilize blockchain applications, and how these tools are linked to perceived performance outcomes, organizational innovation, and stakeholder engagement. In this context, we define blockchain apps not as standalone software platforms, but as blockchain-enabled mechanisms used in sports, such as smart contracts for sponsorships, tokenized fan engagement platforms, blockchain-based ticketing systems, and decentralized athlete data management tools. Likewise, performance in this study refers to self-reported competitive achievement indicators, such as national or international team selection, goals scored, and appearances in major events, rather than physiological or biometric data [3,4,5,6,7,8,9].

Building upon existing studies [11,12], we designed a survey to evaluate blockchain applications in Romanian team sports. This research uses data from 293 sports professionals (213 football and 80 basketball) and applies structural equation modeling (SEM) and cluster analysis to examine patterns in adoption and perception. By comparing two sports with distinct structural and economic profiles, this study provides nuanced insights into sport-specific opportunities and barriers to blockchain implementation.

Ultimately, this study contributes to academic research and practical policy development by offering data-driven, sport-specific insights into blockchain’s current applications and future potential.

Considering the issues discussed above the research questions are as follows:

Q1. Does blockchain adoption in sports bring benefits?

Q1a. What are the primary advantages of integrating blockchain technology into the sports industry as perceived by sports professionals?

Q1b. To what extent do blockchain applications (e.g., data management, ticketing, and fan engagement) address transparency and security challenges in sports?

Q2. Is blockchain adoption in sports associated with athletes’ performance?

Q2a. How does the implementation of blockchain technology influence athletes’ performance at the national and European levels?

Q2b. What are the relationships between the benefits of blockchain adoption and its applications on measurable performance outcomes in team sports?

Q3. What are the professional perspectives on blockchain implementation in sports?

Q3a. How do perceptions of blockchain’s advantages and applicability vary among different professional roles, such as coaches, players, and sports managers?

Q3b. Are there any significant differences in the adoption and effectiveness of blockchain technologies between team sports (e.g., football and basketball)?

2. Applicability of Blockchain in Sports

By offering a safe, unchangeable ledger for transactions, increasing transparency, and guaranteeing regulatory compliance, blockchain technology is reshaping the landscape of sports management. Smart contracts can reduce fraud, enforce adherence to preset standards, and automate financial transactions. Sports event management benefits greatly from a dual-layer architecture strategy that divides the public and private blockchain levels to safeguard private data while preserving an open, decentralized system for ticketing and fan interaction [13].

Sports event administration is automated via smart contracts, which decreases human control while boosting productivity and confidence. For instance, during the World Cup, FIFA used blockchain-based smart contracts for access control and ticketing, guaranteeing automatic ticket authentication and resale, lowering fraud, and guaranteeing safe transactions [14]. Blockchain-enabled contracts have been used to automate prize distribution among players, sponsors, and organizers in professional tennis events, removing inconsistencies and delays [15,16].

Through Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs), blockchain technology enables inclusive and transparent governance. This allows event administrators, athletes, sponsors, and fans to actively engage in decision-making through voting processes based on tokens. Organizations can use the DCF (Dynamic Capabilities Framework) and FMG (Four Modes of Governance) framework to spot new trends, put smart contracts and DAOs into place, and constantly adjust governance structures for best results and legal compliance [5,10].

By reducing typical industry problems like ticket scalping, fake goods, and illegal access, blockchain’s technical architecture immediately supports risk management and fraud prevention. By guaranteeing automatic fund transfers in accordance with predetermined agreements and removing conflicts and inefficiencies, self-executing smart contracts also lessen financial fraud [14].

Secure credential verification procedures are ensured by athletes, coaches, and participants being verified through blockchain-based decentralized identity management. Verifiable credentials and decentralized IDs complement DCF’s focus on reorganizing digital resources [17,18].

A paradigm change promoting creativity, effectiveness, and inclusivity is represented by the incorporation of blockchain technology into sports event administration. Sports organizations can optimize event experiences and increase stakeholder participation by implementing flexible, transparent, and secure governance models using the DCF, CGT (Collaborative Governance Theory), and FMG frameworks [19,20].

Blockchain technology is revolutionizing sports event management by enhancing value creation, streamlining operations, and increasing stakeholder involvement. By offering digital collectibles to buy, sell, and trade on blockchain platforms, sports organizations’ use of tokens and NFTs (non-fungible tokens) has revolutionized fan interaction. By encouraging fan involvement and support, these tokens help clubs become more financially and strategically strong. NBA Top Shot uses digital collectibles and NFT-based ticketing to guard against fraud and guarantee authenticity. The sports blockchain market is expected to reach USD 1.4 billion, with an anticipated 8.5% annual growth rate until 2030 [21,22].

Blockchain has been criticized, nevertheless, for perhaps commodifying fandom and associating it with traits similar to gambling. Notwithstanding these reservations, the advent of NFTs and fan tokens has given sports organizations new sources of income and allowed them to play a bigger part in the market. Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs), which feature a networked model of governance and finance, are made possible by the application of blockchain technology in sports transformation procedures and processes [23].

The ongoing development of blockchain applications, especially through DAOs, smart contracts, and NFTs, demonstrates the technology’s revolutionary potential in creating a more decentralized and effective sports administration ecosystem in spite of these obstacles. To maximize blockchain’s influence on the sector and improve governance frameworks, more investigation and real-world case studies will be essential [9,14].

Blockchain technology has the potential to revolutionize various facets of sports by addressing fundamental issues of transparency, efficiency, and trust. This section explores its practical applications across key areas, supported by relevant studies and technological advancements.

2.1. Athlete Data Management

Metrics that assess an athlete’s condition, performance, and health are critical for competitive success and long-term well-being. However, traditional centralized data systems often suffer from vulnerabilities such as manipulation and lack of transparency. Blockchain provides a decentralized, secure, and tamper-proof method to manage athlete performance data, ensuring integrity and privacy [8]. Initiatives like Microsoft’s “BraveLog” and startups such as Peerspoint and Playmaker Chain have demonstrated blockchain’s viability in safely tracking performance metrics and creating comprehensive sports resumes [4,7]. Similarly, blockchain-based systems like B-PEIS enhance the real-time management and storage of athletes’ fitness data, promoting accuracy and security [24].

Blockchain technology also supports performance prediction. For instance, secure platforms (Healthereum) incorporating predictive algorithms and neural networks can evaluate patterns and trends, contributing to effective performance enhancement and injury prevention strategies [3,25].

2.2. Sports Event Management

Managing large-scale sports events is a complex task that demands high levels of efficiency and fraud prevention. Blockchain enhances transparency by enabling digital issuance and the validation of tickets using non-fungible tokens (NFTs) and smart contracts [8]. For example, a blockchain-powered ticketing system eliminates counterfeit tickets by tracking ownership and resale transactions securely [17]. NBA teams like the Sacramento Kings and UEFA already experimented.

The 2018 Asian Games marked one of the earliest trials of blockchain technology in live sports, integrating RFID mechanisms to prevent ticket fraud and streamline resale markets. While technologically modest by today’s standards, it demonstrated the feasibility of blockchain ticketing well before the widespread adoption of NFTs and smart contracts [26]. More recently, blockchain-based ticketing and fan engagement were prominently featured during the 2022 FIFA World Cup, where fan tokens enabled by platforms like Socios.com provided interactive experiences for millions of supporters. Similarly, the 2023 NBA All-Star Game piloted decentralized ticket distribution and NFT-based access, reflecting a maturing ecosystem of blockchain in global sports events. Beyond fraud prevention, blockchain reduces ticket speculation and dynamic pricing challenges, benefiting both organizers and attendees. FutbolCoin facilitates contracts and transactions between sports clubs, players, and agents using smart contracts. UEFA, the European football governing body, implemented blockchain ticketing in 2018 and 2021 to prevent fraud and scalping during major tournaments. The system distributed 1 million tickets via a blockchain-based mobile app for the 2018 Europa League Final and mobile-only ticketing at the EURO 2020 tournament. The impact was reduced ticket fraud and scalping, and improved fan experience. The study supports the findings that blockchain enhances ticketing security and transparency, and validates the importance of Smart Tickets, a key variable in the study [27].

2.3. Anti-Doping Compliance

Doping scandals have significantly undermined stakeholder trust in competitive sports. Blockchain’s tamper-proof record-keeping ensures traceability in drug storage, testing processes, and compliance monitoring. Solutions such as a redesigned Anti-Doping Administration and Management System (ADAMS), using blockchain to enhance data integrity and privacy, showcase its utility in this domain [5,17].

Furthermore, innovative blockchain designs allow the anonymized storage and verification of athlete biological data, supporting a robust anti-doping ecosystem while safeguarding privacy. Thus, blockchain offers an Athlete Passport to store and verify athletes’ biological data.

2.4. Sports Collectibles and Merchandise

The market for sports memorabilia suffers from counterfeiting and questionable authenticity. Blockchain addresses these issues through transparent and immutable records of ownership. Platforms like NBA Top Shot leverage NFTs to create unique digital collectibles that fans can trade securely. Companies such as Pro Exp Media and Stryking.io partner with sports entities to launch digital collectibles, enhancing fan interaction while ensuring transparency [7,28]. Nike CryptoKicks verify the authenticity of sneakers.

2.5. Fan Engagement

Blockchain-based fan tokens empower supporters to actively participate in their favorite teams’ decision-making and loyalty programs. Socios.com exemplifies this trend by offering tokenized platforms where fans earn cryptocurrency-based rewards for their engagement [10]. Tokens provide voting rights, VIP access, and exclusive experiences, enhancing fan loyalty and creating new revenue streams for sports organizations [9]. The integration of Proof of Attendance Protocol (POAP) NFTs further enriches fan experiences by providing verifiable records of event participation, redeemable for merchandise and future event tickets [20].

FC Barcelona and Juventus use Sociaos.com, and NBA Top Shot by Dapper Labs offers blockchain-based collectible highlights (digital cards) that fans can buy, sell, and trade.

2.6. Sponsorship and Crowdfunding

Blockchain facilitates innovative funding models for athletes and clubs through tokenization and smart contracts. Platforms like SportyCo and Globaltalent.com enable supporters to invest in players’ future earnings while ensuring transparency and fairness [29]. For example, tokenized sponsorships streamline contract management and minimize intermediary fees, benefiting both sponsors and recipients [7].

2.7. Esports and Sports Betting

In Esports, blockchain enables secure, transparent transactions through cryptocurrencies and NFTs. Decentralized competition platforms supported by smart contracts mitigate fraud and enhance user trust [30,31]. In the domain of sports betting, blockchain ensures fairness by automating payouts and securely verifying outcomes via oracles. Augur and Gnosis offer a decentralized betting market.

2.8. Copyright Protection in Sports Media

Blockchain offers innovative solutions to address copyright issues in sports broadcasting. Its transparency ensures that content ownership is immutable, reducing unauthorized use and infringement [32]. Additionally, it facilitates cost-effective licensing and royalty distribution, benefiting content creators and broadcasters [7,33].

Thus, we may affirm that the applicability of blockchain technology in sports spans across critical domains, offering transformative solutions to long-standing challenges. By addressing data security, enhancing engagement, and streamlining operations, blockchain represents a paradigm shift in how the sports industry operates. Recent reviews have explored the broad landscape of blockchain applications in sports, outlining use cases in fan engagement, ticketing, and governance models across various disciplines [34]. With further research and stakeholder collaboration, blockchain’s potential can be harnessed to maximize its benefits for athletes, fans, and organizations alike.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. The Purpose of the Research and the Instruments Used

This study aims to explore the advantages of blockchain technology and assess how blockchain applications influence athletes’ performance. To achieve this, we developed an online survey designed to collect responses from sports professionals. The questionnaire was structured into three distinct sections, each targeting a specific theme:

Blockchain Benefits: Highlighting the perceived advantages of integrating blockchain technology into the sports domain.

Blockchain Apps: Exploring how respondents have implemented blockchain applications in their professional roles.

Performance: Collecting data on the participants’ sports performance levels and achievements.

Each section consisted of multiple questions available online at https://forms.gle/NreiyKtQseVcKN5TA, accessed on 5 May 2025. These components were converted into constructs and subjected to regression analysis using the SmartPLS software (v.3.2.9) to assess their interrelationships.

3.2. Design and Research Phase

The survey was conducted via Google Forms, with respondents completing the forms under the researcher’s guidance. The participants included athletes and academics from the National University of Physical Education and Sports in Bucharest, as well as representatives from the Romanian National Sports Federations. To ensure compliance with ethical and legal standards, the study adhered to GDPR regulations. All the respondents provided informed consent for the anonymous processing of their data and opinions. The study received approval from the Institutional Review Board (Approval No. 37, dated 20 January 2023). Informed consent was obtained from all the participants.

Following a rigorous data-cleaning process, 293 valid responses were retained, comprising 213 from football and 80 from basketball participants. Ambiguous and incomplete responses were excluded to maintain the integrity of the analysis. The sample size imbalance between football and basketball follows the structure of the statistical population. Although the sample size is modest, it remains representative because the inclusion criterion was to previously use these technologies.

The questionnaire was informed by prior studies [11,12] and the primary author’s firsthand experience coaching athletes who incorporated blockchain technology as part of their professional practices. The respondents rated their answers on a Likert scale, ranging from −2 (totally disagree) to 2 (totally agree). This scale was chosen for its symmetric design, allowing for clearer distinctions in agreement intensity.

The methodological framework ensured the systematic organization and evaluation of the data. Partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modeling was employed for data analysis. This technique allows for the simultaneous examination of interactions between latent, formative, and reflective variables, even in studies with smaller sample sizes. The model incorporated two latent reflective constructs: blockchain apps and blockchain benefits. The variables and their corresponding description items are presented below:

Blockchain benefits in sports: Blockchain-based sponsorship uses the internet to publish and broadcast information about sports teams and athletes, enabling online payment. Tokenization is used to fund amateur and lesser-known athletes, recouping investment from team earnings. Smart tickets are tracked using blockchain technology, and decentralization prevents ticket resale. Data security is enhanced by allowing the secure sharing of personal information. Anti-doping is managed through blockchain technology. Fans can invest in talented young athletes, recouping their investment through tokens and smart contracts. Fans can also track and reward fun activities using a unique algorithm.

Blockchain apps: In the context of this study, we define “blockchain apps” not as standalone software platforms, but as a set of functional blockchain-based applications utilized in sports. These include smart contracts, tokenization mechanisms, decentralized data management systems, blockchain-based ticketing, and fan engagement protocols. The term encompasses both technological artifacts (such as NFTs or token platforms like Socios.com) and operational uses (e.g., automating sponsorship deals and securely tracking athlete data).

The study explores blockchain applications in the sports sector, focusing on sponsorship management, athlete tokenization, smart ticketing systems, and decentralized ticket resale mechanisms. Platforms like SportyCo and eToro demonstrate the use of crypto sponsorships, while platforms like PlayerTokens allow aspiring players to monetize their potential. Secure performance data management is enabled by platforms like Daynos.io, while decentralized payment systems like No Limit Fantasy Sports and MyDFS facilitate transparent participation and reward models.

Performance level: The term refers to competitive athletic outcomes rather than physiological or biomechanical performance. It includes indicators such as the number of national team selections, international participation (e.g., European competitions), total goals scored, and inclusion in world-level selections. These are self-reported metrics designed to reflect the athlete’s professional status and achievement level, not biometric data or physical condition.

We performed a path analysis using the three constructs of blockchain benefits in sports, blockchain apps, and performance levels detailed above with the SmartPLS program to evaluate the interrelationships among the variables in the context of our hypotheses. The analysis highlights the connections underpinning our three core hypotheses. Two formative constructs—performance—and two reflective constructs—blockchain apps and blockchain benefits—form the foundation of our investigation. The statistical significance of our sample was validated for the target population, ensuring the robustness of the findings.

While the sample size reflects the distribution of professionals actively engaged with blockchain in Romanian team sports, its modest scale and imbalance between the football and basketball participants represent a limitation. These factors should be considered when interpreting the generalizability and robustness of the findings. The questionnaire was informed by prior literature and professional experience and a formal pre-validation process was undertaken.

The two primary constructs, blockchain apps and blockchain benefits, were rated on a five-point Likert scale. Meanwhile, the open-ended performance variables were measured numerically, capturing participation, achievements, and goals in team sports.

Building on this foundation, our study examines the perceived advantages of blockchain technology and its association with athletes’ performance, with a specific focus on the Romanian sports ecosystem. This research aims to address four central hypotheses:

H1: 

The implementation of blockchain applications in sports fosters trust among coaches and athletes regarding blockchain’s benefits.

H2: 

Blockchain applications positively influence athletes’ performance at national and European levels.

H3: 

Perceptions of blockchain’s advantages differ significantly based on professional roles within sports.

H4: 

Blockchain adoption in sports differs significantly between football and basketball due to structural, economic, and technological factors.

4. Results

4.1. Descriptive Statistics

Our sample demonstrates a well-balanced age distribution, encompassing individuals aged 19 to 55 (Figure 1). Specifically, 35.15% of the respondents are 14–18 years old, 29.69% are 19–25 years old, 17.75% are 26–35 years old, 15.36% are 36–45 years old, and 2.05% are older than 46 years. Gender distribution reflects the nature of team sports, with 78.55% male participants and 21.50% female. Additionally, a majority reside in urban areas (77.46%), and the respondents predominantly have advanced educational qualifications: faculty degrees (50.23%), master’s degrees (35.21%), and PhDs (4.23%).

4.2. Comparative Variance Analysis of Basketball Versus Football

Figure 2 illustrates key variable comparisons between the basketball and football participants.

The difference between groups by sport, gender, and profession was analyzed with the Kruskal–Wallis test (

Table 1. Kruskal–Wallis by sport, gender, and profession.

Kruskal–Wallis	Sport				Gender				Profession
	χ2	df	p	ε2	χ2	df	p	ε2	χ2	df	P	ε2
CryptoSponsorship	0.01	1	0.92	3.51 × 10−5	2.73	2	0.26	0.0093	4	4	0.4	0.0138
PlayerTokens	0.274	1	0.6	9.39 × 10−4	2.25	2	0.33	0.0077	5.5	4	0.24	0.0188
Smart tickets	0.534	1	0.47	0.00183	1.46	2	0.48	0.005	6.1	4	0.19	0.021
DecentralizationTicket	0.148	1	0.7	5.06 × 10−4	1.97	2	0.37	0.0068	3.4	4	0.5	0.0115
SecureData	0.465	1	0.5	0.00159	2.64	2	0.27	0.009	6.2	4	0.19	0.0212
Anti-doping	0.039	1	0.84	1.33 × 10−4	1.81	2	0.4	0.0062	5.6	4	0.23	0.0192
FinancialSupport	4.252	1	0.04	0.01456	0.78	2	0.68	0.0027	4.9	4	0.3	0.0167
RewardingFan	1.214	1	0.27	0.00416	1.43	2	0.49	0.0049	1.9	4	0.75	0.0066
Subscription	0.379	1	0.54	0.0013	0.59	2	0.75	0.002	2.6	4	0.63	0.0089
AppSponsor	0.814	1	0.37	0.00279	2.5	2	0.29	0.0086	5.6	4	0.24	0.019
AppPlayer	1.456	1	0.23	0.00499	2.3	2	0.32	0.0079	4.9	4	0.3	0.0166
AppTickets	1.013	1	0.31	0.00347	2.45	2	0.29	0.0084	6.6	4	0.16	0.0226
AppDescentralization	0.892	1	0.35	0.00306	0.47	2	0.79	0.0016	3.3	4	0.51	0.0113
AppData	0.187	1	0.67	6.41 × 10−4	2.13	2	0.35	0.0073	2.8	4	0.6	0.0094
AppPay	0.419	1	0.52	0.00143	2.75	2	0.25	0.0094	7.2	4	0.12	0.0248
AppRevenue	4.685	1	0.03	0.01604	8.06	2	0.02	0.0276	5.5	4	0.24	0.0187
AppReward	1.268	1	0.26	0.00434	2.64	2	0.27	0.0091	8.2	4	0.08	0.0281
AppInfo	1.662	1	0.2	0.00569	2.26	2	0.32	0.0077	2.9	4	0.57	0.01

).

The results showed statistically significant differences between the football and basketball participants in two key variables: Financial Support (p = 0.039, ε² = 0.0146) and AppRevenue (p = 0.030, ε² = 0.0160). These findings reinforce the idea that basketball professionals may place a higher emphasis on blockchain mechanisms related to sponsorship and monetization. Although the other variables showed no significant sport-based differences, the presence of small effect sizes (e.g., for AppPlayer and AppTickets) suggests that sport-specific preferences might still exist in more nuanced ways, warranting further exploration.

4.2.1. Gender-Based Differences in Perceptions

Complementary Kruskal–Wallis analysis by gender revealed a statistically significant difference in the perception of blockchain’s revenue-generating capabilities (AppRevenue, p = 0.018, ε² = 0.0276). This suggests that gender may influence attitudes toward monetization mechanisms within the blockchain, possibly reflecting differences in economic roles, expectations, or exposure to such tools in sports contexts.

Although other variables did not reach statistical significance, several (e.g., CryptoSponsorship, AppPay, and AppTickets) demonstrated small but noteworthy effect sizes, indicating subtle gender-based perceptions that merit further investigation in larger or more balanced samples. These findings support calls for inclusive blockchain design and communication strategies that reflect the diverse roles and perspectives within sports organizations.

4.2.2. Perceptual Differences Across Professional Roles

While the Kruskal–Wallis tests by professional role did not yield statistically significant differences, several variables exhibited moderate effect sizes, suggesting practical relevance. Notably, AppReward (ε² = 0.0281), AppPay (ε² = 0.0248), and AppTickets (ε² = 0.0226) revealed profession-based variation in how blockchain applications are perceived. For example, coaches and athletes may value blockchain for incentivization and direct payments, while administrators could prioritize ticketing and secure data storage differently.

These findings reinforce H3 by highlighting heterogeneity across professional roles—even if not always statistically significant—underscoring the importance of tailored implementation strategies and communication efforts that reflect each group’s specific interests and responsibilities. Future qualitative research could unpack these dynamics more deeply to inform adoption strategies that align with stakeholder-specific motivations and barriers.

4.3. Model Fit and Path Coefficients

Using SmartPLS, we evaluated the reliability and validity of the constructs. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients confirm strong internal consistency. The path coefficients and corresponding loadings provide additional validation of the hypotheses (Figure 3):

H1: 

Blockchain benefits significantly influence the adoption of blockchain apps. A path coefficient of 0.591 indicates a strong influence, supporting the first hypothesis.

H2: 

Blockchain apps positively impact athletes’ performance at national and European levels, demonstrated by a moderate path coefficient of 0.243.

Fornell–Larcker discriminant validity requirements were satisfied, with diagonal matrix values exceeding off-diagonal entries (

Table 2. Discriminant validity—Fornell–Larcker.

Variables	Block Benefits	Block Apps	Performance
Blockchain Benefits
Blockchain Apps	0.591
Performance	0.141	0.243

). Additionally, the standardized root means square residual (SRMR) of 0.024, below the threshold of 0.05, indicates an excellent model fit [3]

An exceptional match can be explained by the SRMR (0.024), which has a value of less than 0.05 [35]. The parameters d ULS and d G, which stand for the squared Euclid distance and the geodesic distance, respectively, are utilized to calculate the discrepancy depending on the eigenvalue value [36]. The estimates for SRMR, d ULS, and Chi-Square (saturated = 116.318 and estimated = 116.347) are greater than the saturated model, which stands in for the threshold when the estimated and saturated values of the models are compared (

Table 3. Model fit.

	Saturated Model	Estimated Model
SRMR	0.024	0.024
d_ULS	0.077	0.077
d_G	0.078	0.078
Chi-Square	116.318	116.347
NFI	0.960	0.960

). The NFI (0.960) score indicates a consistent model because it is quite near the threshold of one.

The degree to which the exceptionally strong correlations between the variables that predicted the elevated variance of the generated coefficients of regression is determined by the variance inflation factor or VIF. There does not exist collinearity among the variables when the VIF is lower than the conventional threshold of five [36]. In our case all variables have lower values than four, meaning that the multicollinearity is not manifest between our variables (

Table 4. VIF values for each variable.

Variable	VIF	Variable	VIF
AppData	3.06	DecentralizationTicket	2.80
AppDescentralization	3.84	EuropePerf	1.15
AppInfo	3.67	FinancialSupport	2.32
AppRevenue	3.14	NatPerf	1.03
AppSponsor	2.27	PlayerTokens	2.65
AppTickets	3.80	RewardingFan	2.69
BestPerform	1.12	Smart tickets	2.85
CryptoSponsorship	2.14	WorldSelect	1.00

).

Figure 3. Path coefficients. Source: SmartPLS analysis (reprinted from a free version of SmartPLS software, version 3.3.9, created on 30 June 2024) [37].

Figure 3. Path coefficients. Source: SmartPLS analysis (reprinted from a free version of SmartPLS software, version 3.3.9, created on 30 June 2024) [37].

The standard errors for the PLS-SEM results are produced using the predictions from the bootstrapping subsamples. When assessing the significance of PLS-SEM data, SmartPLS software computes T-values, confidence intervals, and standard errors [36]. To evaluate the significance of the PLS-SEM results, T-values, p-values, and confidence intervals were produced using the previously mentioned data [37]. Model coherence is shown by T-values larger than 1.96 [37] and reduced p-values (less than 0.01) because the first regression blockchain benefits -> blockchain apps has µ = 0.59, DS = 0.043. Tstat = 13.869 and p = 0.00. The H1 and H2 that were previously mentioned have been met. Because of the extremely low standard deviations and p-values, we can confirm the high accuracy of our model.

4.4. Cluster Analysis

A dendrogram analysis was performed and three clusters were identified. Then a K-Means clustering (SPSS v.25) was used to analyze perceptions of blockchain advantages and applications. Three distinct clusters emerged:

Cluster 1 (39.24%): Athletes and trainers lean towards agreement with blockchain benefits (center = 1.17) but neutral regarding blockchain apps (center = 0.44).

Cluster 2 (28.66%): Respondents were neutral on both blockchain benefits (center = 0.13) and apps (center = 0.19).

Cluster 3 (32.08%): Strong agreement with blockchain benefits (center = 1.59) and blockchain apps (center = 1.75).

On a Likert scale (−2: totally disagree, 0: neutral, and 2: totally agree), most participants in Clusters 1 and 3 expressed favorable attitudes toward blockchain benefits. Notably, Cluster 2 reflected neutrality yet continued use of blockchain tools. Statistical significance was established via ANOVA, with high F-values (blockchain benefits: 273.892; blockchain apps: 429.864) and p-values below 0.05 (

Table 5. ANOVA for cluster analysis.

	Cluster		Error		F	Sig.
	Mean Square	df	Mean Square	df
BlockchainAdv	50.222	2	0.183	290	273.892	0.000
BlockchainApps	65.359	2	0.152	290	429.864	0.000

).

These findings substantiate H3, confirming that perceptions of blockchain’s advantages and applications vary across professional roles. This supports the broader implications of blockchain adoption in team sports for advancing technology integration and performance optimization.

The Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) based on CryptoSponsorship, PlayerTokens, Smart tickets, DecentralizationTicket, SecureData, Anti-doping, FinancialSupport, RewardingFan, and Subscription results indicate that sport type (football vs. basketball) has a statistically significant effect on blockchain adoption across multiple variables. The key statistical findings are Wilks’ Lambda: 0.342, F = 60.61, p < 0.0001, meaning that sport type significantly influences blockchain adoption. The Pillai’s Trace is 0.658, p < 0.0001, and indicates a large effect size of sport type on blockchain adoption variables. Hotelling’s Trace and Roy’s Largest Root (1.928 and p < 0.0001) support our hypothesis. The results confirm significant differences in how blockchain is perceived and implemented in football vs. basketball. Based on previous data trends football shows higher adoption in Smart Tickets (UEFA ticketing experiments), fan tokens (Socios.com adoption by major clubs), and decentralized ticketing (FIFA blockchain trials). Basketball leads in financial support (Crypto sponsorships like FTX), NFT collectibles (NBA Top Shot driving blockchain engagement), and athlete performance analytics (NBA integrating blockchain for player tracking). These findings offer empirical support for Hypothesis 4 (H4), suggesting sport-specific differences in blockchain adoption patterns.

The clustering helped identify patterns in perception, which were then statistically validated through MANOVA.

While univariate tests may not reveal significance individually, MANOVA considers the collective variation across variables, thereby detecting multivariate effects.

5. Discussion

Blockchain technology holds transformative potential for addressing entrenched challenges in the sports industry, including transparency, security, and efficiency. Accordingly, the research questions have been addressed in accordance with international research published as demonstrated in the following analysis. However, while the existing studies support blockchain’s relevance in sports, comparative analyses between distinct team sports—such as football and basketball—remain notably underexplored. Most research either focuses on single-sport case studies or broad theoretical models, without accounting for the structural and cultural differences that influence adoption in specific disciplines [2,7]. This study addresses that gap by offering one of the first empirical comparisons of blockchain implementation across two major sports within a national ecosystem, providing original insights into how context-specific factors shape perceptions, applications, and performance outcomes.

One methodological caveat concerns the absence of formal psychometric validation of the questionnaire. Although internal consistency metrics (e.g., Cronbach’s alpha) indicate acceptable reliability, the lack of a structured pilot or validation phase may limit the robustness of construct measurement. Future studies are encouraged to deploy validated scales or conduct psychometric testing to enhance construct validity and reliability.

5.1. Key Findings and Implications

Ticketing systems can be created using blockchain-based platforms, allowing fans to purchase tickets directly from organizers, eliminating the risk of counterfeit tickets, and ensuring fair pricing. Additionally, blockchain can enable the resale of tickets on a secure secondary market, allowing fans to buy and sell tickets without intermediaries [7,17]. Figure 3 shows that the loading factors for SmartTicket (LF = 0.873) and DescentralizationTiket (LF = 0.791) are both quite high (over the 0.6 threshold), indicating that the respondents believe they offer significant benefits brought about by blockchain.

The authenticity and provenance of sports memorabilia can also be verified through blockchain-based smart contracts, recording ownership history on a blockchain to ensure authenticity and prevent tampering. Fan engagement platforms can reward fans with digital tokens for attending games, purchasing merchandise, or engaging with content on social media [5,6,7]. The loading factors for RewardingFan (LF = 0.848) and PlayerTokens (LF = 0.908) are also quite high (over the 0.6 threshold), indicating that the respondents perceive these as significant advantages offered by blockchain technology (Figure 3).

Smart contracts automate and secure athlete contracts and payments, streamlining contract negotiations and automating payments. Sports betting platforms can be transparent and decentralized, eliminating intermediaries and ensuring fair outcomes [7,17,28]. In Figure 3 one may observe that the loading factor for FinancialSupport (LF = 0.791) and CryptoSponsorship (LF = 0.748) have very high values (higher than the 0.6 threshold), meaning that in the respondents’ opinion, they represent important advantages brought by blockchain.

Blockchain technology can improve performance in sports by securely tracking player performance data, preventing tampering or manipulation, and providing medical staff with comprehensive records of a player’s medical history. Wearable devices equipped with blockchain technology can continuously monitor player health metrics during training and matches, providing early warning signs of potential injuries [3,12,25,38]. Figure 3 shows that AppDescentralization (LF = 0.869) and AppData (LF = 0.865) have very high loading factors (over the 0.6 threshold), indicating that the respondents believe blockchain apps are crucial for athletic performance.

Scouting and talent identification can be achieved through transparent and decentralized platforms, where player performance data and reports are securely recorded and shared among clubs, agents, and scouts. Fan engagement platforms can provide fans with new ways to interact with their favorite sports clubs, such as issuing digital tokens representing ownership or voting rights [7,28,29]. As can be seen in Figure 3, the loading factors for AppInfo (LF = 0.876) and AppSponsor (LF = 0.857) are both quite high (over the 0.6 threshold), indicating that the respondents believe blockchain apps are crucial for athletic performance.

Lastly, secure and transparent ticketing systems can be created, preventing ticket fraud and scalping, enabling dynamic pricing based on demand, and transferring or reselling tickets securely and transparently [5,6,7]. Figure 3 shows that the loading factors for AppTickets (LF = 0.898) and AppRevenue (LF = 0.822) are both quite high (over the 0.6 threshold), indicating that the respondents believe blockchain apps are crucial to sports success.

The results of this study underscore the significant role of blockchain applications in fostering trust, improving performance, and streamlining operations within the Romanian sports ecosystem. This discussion contextualizes the findings within the broader framework of technological innovation and its implications for sports professionals, athletes, and policymakers.

First, the study validates the hypothesis that blockchain applications significantly enhance confidence in the perceived benefits of the technology among sports professionals. The adoption of blockchain apps, as evidenced by the strong path coefficient (0.591), is positively influenced by the recognition of its advantages, such as secure data management, anti-doping compliance, and transparent ticketing (Figure 3). Ticketing systems, as highlighted, utilize blockchain-based platforms to eliminate counterfeit tickets, ensure fair pricing, and enable secure resale markets. This result corresponds to the high loading factor for “Smart Tickets” (0.89 in football and 0.73 in basketball) in Table 1, demonstrating its pivotal role in fostering adoption. These findings align with previous research that highlights blockchain’s ability to address critical vulnerabilities in centralized systems [7,8].

Second, blockchain applications were shown to have a moderate but positive association with athletes’ performance at both national and European levels (path coefficient: 0.410). The integration of decentralized technologies facilitates better data-driven decision-making, performance tracking, and injury prevention—key factors that contribute to improved outcomes. All the loading factors for different blockchain apps have high loadings (above 0.819 across contexts), reflecting the role of blockchain in managing sensitive player data, preventing injury, and supporting staff with comprehensive records. These findings extend the existing knowledge by empirically demonstrating blockchain’s role in enhancing measurable athletic performance metrics (Figure 3).

Third, the cluster analysis revealed variations in the perceptions of blockchain benefits across professional roles. While the athletes and coaches expressed stronger agreement with blockchain’s advantages, the sports managers and administrators exhibited more neutral attitudes. This divergence highlights the need for tailored strategies to improve stakeholder understanding and the adoption of blockchain technology. Effective communication of blockchain’s value proposition can bridge this gap and encourage wider acceptance (Figure 4).

Even though the findings are consistent with international trends, certain limitations should be acknowledged. The performance indicators are self-reported and may be influenced by subjective interpretation. Also, the exclusive use of quantitative methods limits the depth of understanding regarding how and why blockchain is adopted. These limitations may affect the generalizability and external validity of the findings and suggest the need for complementary qualitative or longitudinal research in the future.

5.2. Practical Implication of Blockchain in Sport

Blockchain technology has numerous practical applications in sports, including ticketing, fan engagement, sponsorship, athlete management, anti-doping, merchandising, betting, and health tracking. It can combat ticket fraud and scalping by providing a secure and transparent way to issue, transfer, and verify tickets using non-fungible tokens (NFTs). Blockchain can also enable new forms of fan engagement through digital collectibles, fan tokens, and reward systems, increasing fan loyalty and creating new revenue streams. It can also provide the transparent and efficient tracking of sponsorship deals and advertising metrics, ensuring both parties receive verifiable data on campaign performance. Blockchain platforms like FutbolCoin facilitate contracts and transactions between sports clubs, players, and agents using smart contracts. It can also improve transparency and trust in anti-doping processes by securely recording test results and ensuring immutability. It can also provide a decentralized and tamper-proof platform for placing and settling bets. This research demonstrates that, overall, the implementation of blockchain applications in sports yields substantial benefits reflected in the increased performance of the athletes. This performance is associated with an increased return on investment (ROI) positively associated with the sportive clubs and countries economy.

Why Football Adopts Blockchain Faster Than Basketball?

Football has larger, global audiences and as a consequence, has a higher demand for secure ticketing and fan engagement. UEFA and FIFA experimented with blockchain early, which enhanced the industry-wide adoption. Basketball focused more on NFT collectibles and analytics rather than direct blockchain governance (

Table 6. Comparative analysis football vs. basketball.

Blockchain Application	Football (Soccer)	Basketball	Key Differences
Smart Tickets	UEFA used blockchain for EURO 2020 ticketing	Limited adoption	Football faces higher ticket fraud risks, necessitating blockchain solutions.
Fan Engagement	Fan tokens (FC Barcelona and PSG)	NBA Top Shot (NFTs)	Football engages fans through ownership; basketball leverages collectibles
Player Performance Data	Less adoption, mostly in elite clubs	NBA experimenting with blockchain-based tracking	NBA teams more focused on individual analytics
Sponsorship Management	Crypto sponsorships (e.g., eToro and Crypto.com)	Smart contracts used for sponsor deals (e.g., FTX)	Basketball relies more on digital asset sponsorships

).

Benchmarking Against Other Sectors: Blockchain adoption in sports is still in its early stages, but other industries have already achieved maturity in key blockchain applications. Comparing sports to finance, healthcare, and supply chains allows insights into best practices for overcoming adoption barriers. An industry comparison might be observed in

Table 7. Blockchain benchmarking against other sectors.

Blockchain Use Case	Sports	Finance	Healthcare	Supply Chain
Smart Contracts	Used for player contracts and sponsorships	Used for cross-border transactions (Ripple and Ethereum)	Used for insurance and patient consent management	Used for automating vendor contracts and shipments
Data Security and Privacy	Protects athlete performance and health data	Secures financial transactions and identities (e.g., KYC compliance)	Used for electronic medical records (EMRs)	Tracks product origins and reduces fraud (Walmart, IBM Food Trust)
NFTs and Digital Ownership	Used for fan engagement and sports collectibles	Used for digital art and music royalties	Potential for patient data ownership via NFTs	Used for tokenized tracking of high-value goods
Decentralized Governance	Used in fan voting and club decision-making (DAOs)	Used in Decentralized Finance (DeFi)	Not widely adopted yet	Blockchain-based supply chain consortia (e.g., TradeLens by Maersk)

.

The finance industry pioneered blockchain use through DeFi (Decentralized Finance), enabling secure cross-border transactions with smart contracts (e.g., Ripple and Ethereum). In sports blockchain-powered player contracts and salary payments can eliminate intermediaries in international transfers (Table 7). Healthcare blockchain secures Electronic Medical Records (EMRs), reducing fraud and unauthorized data access. In sports, blockchain can protect athlete health records from tampering, similar to its use in anti-doping programs (Table 7). Supply Chain: Walmart and IBM track food safety using blockchain, ensuring transparency in the supply chain. In sports blockchain can be used to track athlete sponsorship deals, ensuring contract transparency (Table 7).

6. Limitations and Future Directions

Despite the promising results, this study has certain limitations. The sample is limited to Romanian team sports, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to other contexts or individual sports. Moreover, while the study employed validated tools such as structural equation modeling (SEM) and cluster analysis, qualitative insights from in-depth interviews or case studies could provide a richer understanding of blockchain’s real-world applications. While HTMT is considered a more robust indicator of discriminant validity, it was not available in the current version of SmartPLS. Therefore, we relied on the Fornell–Larcker criterion, which showed acceptable discriminant validity across constructs. Future work will incorporate HTMT for enhanced rigor.

While formal pre-validation was not conducted, the questionnaire was based on previously published frameworks and the lead author’s coaching experience. While the sample distribution mirrors actual adoption trends in Romanian team sports, the use of convenience sampling introduces limitations in generalizing the results. Specifically, the imbalance between the football and basketball respondents may constrain the statistical power of subgroup comparisons. This limitation is particularly relevant for the interpretation of comparative analyses across sports and professional roles, as the unequal group sizes may affect variance homogeneity and the robustness of inferential statistics.

Due to the cross-sectional and perceptual nature of our data—based on the informed opinions of individuals with direct experience using the technology—no causal inferences can be made, although their insights provide valuable practical perspectives.

We acknowledge the potential influence of social desirability bias and model-driven response regularity as a limitation. Future qualitative research would help validate the observed clusters. Variables such as funding differences, coaching practices, or organizational culture may mediate or confound the perceived benefits of blockchain.

Future research should explore the scalability of blockchain applications across diverse sports disciplines and geographic regions. Additionally, longitudinal studies could examine the sustained impact of blockchain adoption on athletic performance over time. Investigating the ethical and regulatory implications of blockchain in sports, particularly concerning data privacy and intellectual property, would also be valuable.

By addressing these gaps, future studies can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how blockchain technology can revolutionize the sports industry.

7. Conclusions

This study confirms the core hypotheses regarding the positive relationship between blockchain benefits, adoption, and athlete performance in team sports. The results support H1 and H2, showing that perceived benefits significantly influence the use of blockchain applications, which in turn have a measurable, although moderate, association with performance. The cluster and MANOVA analyses also validate H3 and H4, indicating that professional roles and sports types influence the perception and implementation of blockchain technologies.

Blockchain’s capabilities—from secure data management to transparent ticketing and anti-doping compliance—address long-standing challenges and pave the way for innovation. Furthermore, blockchain-based fan engagement platforms and tokenization strategies offer new revenue streams and deepen fan loyalty, underscoring the broader economic and social implications of this technology.

At the same time, these conclusions should be viewed in light of the study’s limitations. The use of self-reported data and the focus on two sports in one national context may restrict the generalizability of the findings. Therefore, while the study offers novel comparative insights, further research is needed to validate these results across other sports and regions, ideally through mixed-method approaches. The sports sector may draw valuable lessons from more mature industries: Finance shows how smart contracts can automate sponsorship deals and athlete payments. Healthcare provides a model for securing athlete medical records using decentralized ledgers. Supply chain transparency solutions can reduce fraud in merchandise authentication and contracts. Finance and healthcare have clearer regulatory structures for blockchain than sports. Sports federations need to learn from supply chain models to handle large-scale blockchain adoption.

In conclusion, while this study highlights blockchain’s promise, its widespread implementation in sports remains a work in progress. As the technology evolves, future research and practice should focus on maximizing its benefits for athletes, fans, and organizations alike. By doing so, blockchain can serve as a catalyst for transparency, efficiency, and competitive growth in the global sports industry.