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Article

Response of Cretaceous Palynological Records to Regional Tectonic Events and Global Climate Change in Liupanshan Basin, Northwest China

by
Bohua Liu
1,2,
Fang Wu
1,3,4,*,
Lijie Wei
1,3,4,
Zhenhong Li
1,3,4 and
Xiaopeng Dong
1,3,4
1
Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
2
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
3
Key Laboratory of Active Tectonics and Geological Safety, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beijing 100081, China
4
Key Laboratory of Paleomagnetism and Tectonic Reconstruction, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beijing 100081, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 5900; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115900
Submission received: 26 March 2025 / Revised: 8 May 2025 / Accepted: 15 May 2025 / Published: 23 May 2025
Browse Figures
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Abstract

:
The transition of the East Asian tectonic system during the Jurassic-Cretaceous period has had a profound influence on the paleoclimatic evolution in Northwest China. However, there are few studies on the climatic response to the tectonic events of this period. This study is based on the palynological analysis of the Lower Cretaceous Madongshan Formation in the southern Liupanshan Basin, Northwest China, and the summary of published data. It establishes a stratigraphic framework for the Early Cretaceous of the Liupanshan Basin and adjacent areas. It integrates the global Lower Cretaceous paleoclimatic background with the Middle Jurassic-late Lower Cretaceous sedimentary facies and the paleogeographic pattern of the Liupanshan Basin and the adjacent Ordos Basin. This integration aims to explore the climatic background differences between the Liupanshan and the Ordos Basin and to deduce the paleoclimatic response to tectonism and global paleoclimatic events. We determine an Aptian-Albian age for the Madongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin. This formation can be divided into three palynological assemblage zones from bottom to top (Zones I–III). In general, the climate changed from dry to wet, and the climate in Zone I was arid. In contrast, the adjacent Ordos Basin remained in a cool and humid environment during the sedimentation corresponding to Zone I. This points to a significant influence of the Jurassic-Cretaceous tectonic uplift on the regional climate evolution. Furthermore, the climate of Zone III became relatively humid in response to a global climatic cooling event at the Aptian-Albian transition. The study showed that the global climate change and regional tectonic events jointly influenced the regional climate evolution. Moreover, global climate change affected the paleoclimatic evolution of Northwest China later than the regional tectonic activities.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Climate and geological structure are crucial for unraveling the geological history of Earth. The tectonic system of East Asia underwent a major transformation during the Jurassic-Cretaceous period, with a profound impact on the sedimentary characteristics of basins and the evolution of paleoclimate and life in Northwest China [1]. The Liupanshan Basin is a typical Mesozoic-Cenozoic fault basin in Northwest China. The Lower Cretaceous Liupanshan Group is well exposed and hosts abundant floral and faunal fossils [2,3,4,5]. Continuous fluvial and lacustrine deposits, capable of revealing climatic variations, make it an ideal target for studying the paleoclimate evolution in Northwest China.
Before the Middle Jurassic, the Liupanshan Basin was connected to the Ordos Basin [6]. During the Middle to Late Jurassic, the tectonic regime of East Asia changed significantly to a convergent system characterized by intracontinental subduction and orogeny [7,8]. This transformation of the tectonic regime resulted in the emergence of the East China Plateau and ended the evolutionary history of the Great Ordos Basin. In the meantime, a north-south-oriented paleo-uplift formed along a line connecting the Liupan, Helan, and Zhuozi mountains [9,10,11,12]. Existing fission track data and thermal history simulations demonstrated that the paleo-uplift was an intermittent tectonic uplift zone [12,13,14,15]. Its activity was limited to the period between the Callovian in the Middle Jurassic and the Albian in the Lower Cretaceous (approximately 165–110 Ma). Its initial development and formation lasted until Hauterivian in the Lower Cretaceous (approximately 165–130 Ma). A regional tectonic inversion at the Hauterivian-Barremian boundary in the Early Cretaceous (130 Ma approximately) permitted the independent evolution of the Liupanshan Basin [16,17]. In the Aptian-Albian (approximately 120–110 Ma), the paleo-uplift rose again [18].
The Lower Cretaceous System in the Liupanshan Basin features fluvial-lacustrine sediments. In contrast, the contemporaneous strata in the Ordos Basin are diverse and include sedimentary deposits. These include desert, lake, delta, river, and alluvial fan environments [19]. Different sedimentary systems provide different climatic information. However, recent research on the geological processes of this period has focused mainly on the tectonic and sedimentary evolution [11,18,20,21,22]. The question of whether these tectonic activities led to differences in the paleoclimatic background of the two independent basins remains unanswered. In addition, an increasing number of studies revealed several interruptions of the Cretaceous greenhouse climate by cold events. One of these is the rapid cooling at the Aptian-Albian transition [23,24]. In the context of the regional tectonic uplift, it is still unclear whether Northwest China responded to this cold event at all and how global climate fluctuations affected the regional climate evolution.
Therefore, we systematically sampled and identified palynofossils in a section of the Lower Cretaceous Madongshan Formation in Haijiazhuang, southern Liupanshan Basin. Through a palynological assemblage analysis, we explored the paleovegetation and paleoclimatic environment during the deposition of the Lower Cretaceous Madongshan Formation. The systematic examination of an existing section analysis led to a stratigraphic framework for the Early Cretaceous in the Liupanshan Basin and adjacent areas. Moreover, we comprehensively considered the regional sedimentary facies and paleogeography, as well as the global climatic background of the early Middle Jurassic-late Lower Cretaceous. This study aimed to identify paleoclimatic differences between the Liupanshan and Ordos basins. It linked these variations to a tectonic regime transformation. Other aspects were the paleoclimatic evolution and the response to global paleoclimatic events of the Madongshan Formation. This study provided a new perspective for assessing the response to Jurassic-Cretaceous tectonic events and Cretaceous global climate fluctuations in Northwest China.

2. Geological Background

The Liupanshan Basin is located in the southern Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region in Northwest China. Tectonically, it belongs to the southwestern region of the North China Plate, where several major regional faults intersect or merge. As a junction, it connects different geotectonic units in the western and eastern parts of Northern China [25,26,27] (Figure 1). Before the Middle Jurassic, the Liupanshan Basin, which is part of the Great Ordos Basin, had undergone the same evolution as the present-day Ordos Basin (Figure 2a). Since the Middle to Upper Jurassic, due to regional tectonic activities, an intermittent tectonic uplift zone (paleo-uplift hereafter) had started to form along a line connecting the Liupan, Helan, and Zhuozi mountains in the Middle to Upper Jurassic. Its activity may have lasted from the Callovian in the Middle Jurassic to the Albian in the Early Cretaceous. With the emergence of the paleo-uplift, the Liupanshan Basin separated from the Great Ordos Basin in the Early Cretaceous and began to develop independently (Figure 2b). Extremely thick Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary strata are present in the Liupanshan Basin, whereas the Upper Cretaceous system is often absent. The vertical stratigraphy consists of Upper Triassic, Middle Jurassic, Lower Cretaceous, Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary strata. While the Lower and Upper Jurassic systems can only be observed at some locations, other strata are widely distributed throughout the region. In the Liupanshan Basin, there are five sedimentary formations in the Lower Cretaceous Liupanshan Group, the Sanqiao, Heshangpu, Liwaxia, Madongshan, and Naijiahe Formations, from the bottom to the top. The Sanqiao Formation is a set of sedimentary units mainly composed of coarse clastic rocks belonging to alluvial fan deposits. The Heshangpu Formation is composed of sandstone and a small amount of conglomerate, belonging to fluvial deposits. The Liwaxia Formation is composed of mudstone, limestone, and a small amount of siltstone and fine sandstone. The Madongshan Formation is composed of mudstone, shale, and a small amount of limestone. The Madongshan Formation includes mudstone, shale, and a small amount of limestone; it represents the peak period of lake development in deep-lake facies. The Naijiahe Formation comprises heterogeneous shale as well as carbonate, gypsum, and salt rocks; it relates to lake extinction and semi-deep and shallow-lake facies [28,29].
In the section of the Ordos Basin adjacent to the Liupanshan Basin, the Lower Cretaceous strata consist of the Yijun, Luohe, Huanhehuachi, Luohandong, and Jingchuan Formations (from bottom to top). During the Early Cretaceous, the Ordos Basin was a half-graben with a gentle eastern slope and a steep western slope, exhibiting a north-south-oriented distribution of sedimentary systems: alluvial fan-braided river-lake systems on steep banks, desert-river-delta-lake systems on gentle slopes, and alluvial fan-river-lake systems on the northern margin [11,31,34].
Applsci 15 05900 g002
Figure 2. Early Middle Jurassic sedimentary facies map (a) and Late Early Cretaceous sedimentary facies map (b) of the Liupanshan Basin and adjacent areas [29,31,32,33,35].
Figure 2. Early Middle Jurassic sedimentary facies map (a) and Late Early Cretaceous sedimentary facies map (b) of the Liupanshan Basin and adjacent areas [29,31,32,33,35].
Applsci 15 05900 g002

3. Material and Methods

3.1. Sample Material

The samples for this study were collected from the Madongshan Formation at the Haijiazhuang section in the southern Liupanshan Basin, Ningxia (35°53′47″ N, 106°12′11″ E). This section has a thickness of approximately 62.9 m. A total of 25 samples were analyzed for palynology. The lithologies include gray and dark gray mudstones, black shales, and minor dark gray marlstones (Figure 3).

3.2. Methods

Palynological analysis and identification were carried out at the Palynology Laboratory of the Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. The palynological samples were pretreated using the HCl-HF method [36,37]. All the palynological samples are stored with the collection number HJZ 1–25 in the Palynology Laboratory of the Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences.
The experimental steps for the palynological analysis were as follows: 100 g of air-dried sample was crushed and sieved through a 16-mesh standard sieve. The sieved samples were placed in a glass container, about three times the sample volume of 20% hydrochloric acid (Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) solution was added, and the mixture was heated on a hot plate for 30 min. If necessary, new liquid was added until the reaction was complete. After removing the upper waste liquid with a pipette and refilling it with water, the mixture was allowed to settle for 6 h. This process was repeated 5–6 times until a neutral pH was reached. The sample was then transferred to a plastic beaker, about twice the sample volume of 40% hydrofluoric acid (Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) solution was added, the mixture was stirred repeatedly, and then it was settled for 48 h. Then, the waste liquid was removed and replaced with new liquid, and the solution was stirred; after 48 h of settling, the waste liquid was removed with a pipette, and the beaker was refilled with water. This step was repeated until a neutral pH was reached. The neutralized samples were oscillated and filtered in an ultrasonic oscillator through sieves with mesh sizes of 200 and 7 µm to enrich the spores and pollen. After centrifugation and dehydration, the samples were preserved in glycerin to prepare slides for microscopic identification.
Palynofossil samples were identified under a Leica DM2500 biological microscope (Leica, Wetzler, Germany) at 400-fold magnification, and fossil proportions were calculated for samples with fossil counts greater than 100.

4. Results

Microscopic identification and statistical analysis revealed palynofossils in 25 palynological samples collected from the Cretaceous Madongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin. Samples with more than 100 palynofossils were considered statistically significant. Among them, 11 samples had spore and pollen counts ranging from 100 to 200 grains, whereas the remaining contained less than 100. A total of 42 species from 37 genera with predominantly gymnosperm pollen were identified (Figure 4). Based on this, the proportions and distributions of spore and pollen genera and species were calculated, and a representative percentage table of spore and pollen genera and species was established for the Madongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin (Figure 5).

4.1. Zone I: Classopollis-Araucariacites Assemblage (62.9–44.6 m)

For Zone I, the analysis was conducted on four samples, all of which had statistically significant spore and pollen counts. Gymnosperm pollen was dominant (91.60–98.15%, avg. 95.04%), whereas fern spores were sparse (1.85–8.40%, avg. 4.96%).
Among the gymnosperm pollen, the extinct Classopollis, related to the Coniferaceae and Cheirolepidiaceae families, occupied the dominant position (72.90–81.48%, avg. 78.60%); the most abundant species was Classopollis annulatus, followed by Classopollis classoides and Classopollis meyeriana. Araucariacites (3.82–12.80%, avg. 9.43%) were the second most abundant. Other gymnosperm pollen genera had percentages below 10%, and the contents of Psophosphaera (0–5.61%, avg. 2.33%) and Jiaohepollis (0.62–3.82%, avg. 1.96%) were relatively high. In addition, Callialasporites, Pinuspollenites, Cedripites, Protopinus, Perinopollenites, and Cycadopites occurred sporadically. Fern spores, with species such as Verrucosisporites, Retiverrucispora, Concavisporites, and Cicatricosisporites, were scarce.

4.2. Zone II: Classopollis-Araucariacites-Bisaccates Assemblage (44.6–18.5 m)

Zone II is represented by ten analyzed samples, five of which had abundant spores and pollen. Gymnosperm pollen dominated (85.45–92.86%, avg. 89.58%), whereas fern spores were sparse (7.14–14.55%, avg. 10.70%).
Although Classopollis (mainly Classopollis classoides) remained predominant among the gymnosperm pollen, it showed a significant depletion (18.18–39.45%, avg. 27.66%). The content of Araucariacites (mainly Araucariacites australis) of the Araucariaceae family increased significantly to proportions ranging from 15.45% to 31.25%, with an average of 23.35%. Jiaohepollis and Callialasporites showed increasing trends, with percentages ranging from 2.59% to 19.09% and 3.45% to 8.18%, respectively, and averages of 9.57% and 5.17%, respectively. Identified Jiaohepollis species include Jiaohepollis verus, Jiaohepollis flexuosus, and Jiaohepollis scutellatus. Bisaccates showed an increasing trend, with proportions ranging from 15.60% to 25.89%, with an average of 19.84%. Among them, Bisaccates with two well-developed sacs included Alisporites (0–1.82%, avg. 0.79%), Pinuspollenites (0–8.62%, avg. 3.10%), Cedripites (2.68–5.45%, avg. 3.67%), Erlianpollis (0–3.64%, avg. 1.55%), Piceaepollienties (0–1.79%, avg. 0.53%), Podocarpidites (0–2.75%, avg. 1.26%), and Parcisporites (0–1.82%, avg. 0.70%). Bisaccates with two incomplete sacs included Protopinus (0–0.91%, avg. 0.54%), Protopicea (0–0.89%, avg. 0.18%), Paleoconiferus (0–14.29%, avg. 5.60%), and Protoconiferus (0–3.57%, avg. 1.67%). In addition, gymnosperm pollen contained small amounts of Psophosphaera, Inaperturopollenites, Anizonosaccites, Perinopollenites, Cycadopites, Ephedripites, and Chasmatosporites.
Fern spores had low abundances, ranging from 8.26% to 14.55%, but their types were relatively diverse. The fern spores observed included Punctatisporites, Toroisporis, Undulatisporites, Aratrisporites, Dictyophyllidites, Verrucosisporites, Retiverrucispora, Sphagnumsporites, Appendicisporites, and Cicatricosisporites.

4.3. Zone III: Araucariacites-Classopollis-Jiaohepollis Assemblage (18.5–0 m)

Zone III was analyzed in eleven samples. Among them, two samples showed abundant spores and pollen, with continued dominance of gymnosperm pollen (81.65–87.72%, avg. 84.68%) and a relatively low content of fern spores (11.11–15.82%, avg. 13.47%). The latter was slightly higher than in zone II. Angiosperm pollen was also present on occasion.
Within this assemblage zone, Araucariacites began to dominate the gymnosperm pollen (35.41–41.14%, avg. 38.27%), with Araucariacites australis being the predominant species. Classopollis content significantly decreased (6.96–14.79%, avg. 10.88%), mainly represented by Classopollis classoides. Bisaccates had a lower abundance compared with Zone II (10.62–11.39%, avg. 11.01%) and was mainly represented by Paleoconiferus (0–2.51%, avg. 1.25%), Parcisporites (0–3.80%, avg. 1.90%), Erlianpollis (0.63–2.34%, avg. 1.49%), and Pinuspollenites (1.27–1.75%, avg. 1.51%). The Jiaohepollis content increased significantly (15.82–20.47%, avg. 18.15%), mainly in Jiaohepollis verus, Jiaohepollis flexuosus, Jiaohepollis scutellatus, and Jiaohepollis bellus. Additionally, a small number of Callialasporites, Anizonosaccites, Cycadopites, Perinopollenites, and Chasmatosporites appeared sporadically among the gymnosperm pollen.
The spore types observed were Sphagnumsporites, Appendicisporites, Cicatricosisporites, Leiotriletes, Punctatisporites, Toroisporis, Dictyophyllidites, Verrucosisporites, Retiverrucispora, and Aratrisporites
Notably, the angiosperm pollen Magnolipollis (1.17–2.53%, avg. 1.85%) began to appear in Zone III. Although its abundance was low, Magnolipollis was continuously distributed in the assemblage Zone III.

5. Discussion

5.1. Response of Structural Events to Paleoclimate Evolution

5.1.1. Ages of the Haijiazhuang Section

(1) Zone I
Zone I shows a predominance of gymnosperm pollen, with a scarcity of fern spores. Among the gymnosperms, Classopollis dominates, accounting for an average percentage of 78.60%. Classopollis flourished during the Upper Jurassic (with contents ranging from 60% to 80%), declined rapidly in the Lower Cretaceous, and became more and more abundant in the late Lower Cretaceous [2,32,38,39,40] (usually in the Aptian). The high abundance of Classopollis is also characteristic of the palynological assemblages of the Liupanshan Group [19,41,42]. Jiaohepollis, a representative Lower Cretaceous pollen from Northern China, occurred in the Berriasian-Albian period and was most prominent during the Hauterivian-Aptian time [29,40,43].
Additionally, Zone I contains typical Early Cretaceous spores, such as Cicatricosisporites. Cicatricosisporites are often regarded as markers that distinguish between the Jurassic and Cretaceous [44,45]. Furthermore, based on fossil assemblages of spores, pollen, ostracods, and algae in the Liupanshan Group of the Haiyuan Depression in the Liupanshan Basin, the Heshangpu and Liwaxia Formations possess Hauterivian-Barremian (Lower Cretaceous) ages [2]. Therefore, the sedimentation of Zone I may not have preceded the Barremian and was not later than the Albian.
(2) Zone II
Zone II is characterized by the dominance of gymnosperm pollen, followed by fern spores. Compared with Zone I, Classopollis is significantly less abundant in Zone II (although still at a generally high level), whereas the abundances of Araucariacites, Bisaccates, and Jiaohepollis are significantly more common. Jiaohepollis was widespread in the Berriasian-Albian. A small amount of Erlianpollis (spanning Berriasian-Aptian) [46] appears in this zone. The palynological assemblage in the Madongshan Group in the Sikouzi section is similar to that of Zone III, where Classopollis remains predominant but with reduced abundance. In contrast, the contents of Bisaccates and Jiaohepollis increase, while fern spores are scarce. The palynological evidence from the Sikouzi section points to the Aptian to Albian geological ages of the Madongshan Group [33].
In Zone II, characteristic Cretaceous fossils such as Appendicisporites and Cicatricosisporites also occur. Appendicisporites first appeared in the Berriasian (Lower Cretaceous) and gradually declined during the early Upper Cretaceous [47]. Additionally, some typical Lower Cretaceous spores, such as Ephedripites and Toroisporis, were found in Zone II. Therefore, the sedimentation of Zone II probably occurred during the Aptian.
(3) Zone III
Zone III is characterized by the predominance of gymnosperm pollen, followed by fern spores. The angiosperm pollen Magnolipollis is distributed throughout Zone III, although in small amounts; its presence distinguishes Zone III from the previous two. Magnolipollis may have existed in minor quantities since the Upper Jurassic; however, it became widespread from the Aptian-Albian onwards [29,48]. Jiaohepollis became increasingly abundant in the Berriasian-Albian and peaked in the Hauterivian-Aptian. A small number of continuously distributed Erlianpollis appeared in Zone III, and their distribution age was from Berriasian-Aptian. Additionally, characteristic Early Cretaceous spores, such as Appendicisporites, Cicatricosisporites, and Toroisporis, were present. Therefore, the sedimentation of Zone III likely happened in the Aptian-Albian.
From a lithological point of view, the Haijiazhuang section mainly comprises gray, dark gray mudstone, and black shale, which accords with the lithological characteristics of the Madongshan Formation. Hu et al. conducted paleomagnetic surveys on the sedimentary strata of the Huoshizhai Section in the Liupanshan Basin and found magnetostratigraphic ages of 118.3~109.6 Ma (Aptian-Albian) for the Madongshan Formation [16] (Figure 6). Given the palynological assemblages, stratigraphic lithology, and paleomagnetic measurements, the Madongshan Formation in Haijiazhuang Section is of Lower Cretaceous, Aptian-Albian, age.

5.1.2. Regional Stratigraphic Comparison

The Lower Cretaceous deposits in the Liupanshan Basin are referred to as the Liupanshan Group, which is divided from bottom to top into the Sanqiao, Heshangpu, Liwaxia, Madongshan, and Naijiahe Formations [31]. According to published paleomagnetic data, the Liupanshan Group dates back to the late Hauterivian-Albian (130–100 Ma). In particular, the Madongshan Formation has a middle Aptain-early Albian (118.3–109.6 Ma) age [16]. Palynological assemblages in the Madongshan Formation at the Sikouzi and the Qianzhuang sections in the Liupanshan Basin indicate late Aptian-early Albian and Aptian-Albian ages, respectively [29,33]. Our palynological results concur with those published, and the stratigraphic age of the Madongshan Formation is the Aptian-Albian stage of the Lower Cretaceous.
There are different views on the nomenclature of the Cretaceous strata in the Ordos Basin. The Lower Cretaceous strata are known as the Zhidan or Baoan groups. In the Ningxia and Shaanxi volumes of the latest Regional Geology of China, these strata are uniformly referred to as the Baoan Group and include the Yijun, Luohe, Huanhehuachi, Luohandong, and Jingchuan formations from bottom to top [31,32,50]. Zhang et al. performed a palynological study in the Huating-Longxian region of the southwestern Ordos Basin and proposed that the palynological assemblage of the Jingchuan Formation corresponds to the early to middle Lower Cretaceous [47]. Meanwhile, Li et al. compared the strata based on the palynological assemblages of the Liupanshan Group and discovered that the Jingchuan Formation was equivalent to the Heshangpu, Liwaxia, Madongshan, and Naijiahe Formations of the Liupanshan Group. More specifically, the Lower Jingchuan Formation is equivalent to the Heshangpu, Liwaxia, and Madongshan Formations, whereas the Naijiahe Formation is equivalent to the Upper Jingchuan Formation [49]. Similarly, Ren et al. concluded that the Luohandong and Jingchuan Formations correspond to the Liupanshan Group based on their palynological study in the Longdong area at the southwestern margin of the Ordos Basin. It has been suggested that the Lower Jingchuan Formation corresponds to the Liwaxia and Madongshan Formations in the Liupanshan Group, whereas the Upper Jingchuan Formation is equivalent to the Naijiahe Formation. The geological age of the Jingchuan Formation may be the late Aptian-early to middle part of the Albian [32].
Therefore, according to the palynological assemblage analysis of the Haijiazhuang section and reported research results, the Madongshan Formation of the Liupanshan Group should be equivalent to the Lower Jingchuan Formation of the Baoan Group (Figure 6). Therefore, the climatic environments during the deposition of the Madongshan Formation and the Lower Jingchuan Formation can be compared to elucidate the climatic responses caused by tectonic events.

5.2. Paleovegetation and Paleoclimatic Evolution

Plants are crucial indicators of terrestrial climate. Different climatic conditions result in different types of vegetation. Spores and pollen, as the reproductive organs of plants, can determine the type of the parent plants based on morphology and thereby determine the climatic conditions. Although the spores and pollen observed in this article were preserved in the strata over a long geological history, plants are relatively sensitive to climate changes. The types of plants vary greatly among different climatic conditions. Therefore, they can also reflect the ancient vegetation and paleoclimate during the sedimentary period of the strata to a certain extent [51,52]. Previous studies have categorized the climatic zones in which spore- and pollen-producing plants grew into five major types: tropical, subtropical, temperate, tropical-subtropical, and tropical-temperate. The adaptations of spore- and pollen-producing plants to humid conditions have been classified into five major types: xerophytic, mesophytic, hygrophytic, aquatic, and calcophic (Table 1) [53]. Based on this classification, the Madongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin can be associated with three successive types of palynological assemblages.
Ferns thrive in shady and moist environments, whereas gymnosperms such as Cheirolepidiaceae, Araucariaceae, and Podocarpaceae are distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Pinaceae occur primarily in tropical to temperate zones, whereas primitive Coniferales and Cupressaceae occur in temperate regions. Cycadaceae and Ginkgoaceae are distributed throughout the tropical regions [54,55].
During the deposition of Zone I, the vegetation was relatively monotonous and dominated by gymnosperms, especially Cheirolepidiaceae (avg. 78.60%), which prefer dry and hot environments and are considered seasonal xerophytes (e.g., shrubby conifers), mostly growing on highland slopes [56]. The pollen of Araucariacites, Psophosphaera, and other related plants belonging to Coniferae are classified as Araucariaceae (avg. 11.76%). Modern Araucariaceae grow in warm and humid environments in the shades of tropical and subtropical mountains [29,33]. Climate-critical fossils such as primitive Coniferales, Pinaceae, Cupressaceae, and Podocarpaceae, which point to moist heat or warm humidity, appear only sporadically. In summary, Zone I reflects a vegetation type dominated by Cheirolepidiaceae, followed by Araucariaceae, indicative of a subtropical arid climate.
Compared with Zone I, during the deposition in Zone II, a remarkable change occurred in the plant community. The proportion of Cheirolepidiaceae, which prefers dry and hot environments, decreased significantly (avg. 27.66%), while the proportion of Araucariaceae, such as Araucariacites, increased substantially (avg. 23.35%). Pollen of the primitive Coniferales, Podocarpaceae, and Pinaceae also increased in abundance (avg. 19.84%). Compared with Zone I, a slight increase in ferns was observed. Zone II showed increased vegetation diversity, dominated by Araucariaceae, followed by Cheirolepidiaceae, reflecting a subtropical warm semi-arid climate.
During the deposition of Zone III, gymnosperms remained dominant, with a slight change in fern abundance compared with Zone II. The Araucariaceae content further increased (avg. 38.27%) and became the dominant vegetation during this period. The proportion of Cheirolepidiaceae was lower (avg. 10.88%), whereas the proportions of primitive Coniferales, Podocarpaceae, and Pinaceae decreased slightly (avg. 11.01%). Zone III reflected an Araucariaceae-dominated vegetation type, indicating a subtropical semi-humid climate.
In the early stages of Zone I deposition in the Haijiazhuang section, Cheirolepidiaceae dominated the vegetation. The palynological assemblage of the Cretaceous Madongshan Formation in the Sikouzi section of Ningxia and Anguo Town of Pingliang, Gansu, shares this characteristic [33,49]. However, significant differences were observed between the palynological assemblages recorded in the Haijiazhuang section of the Cretaceous series and those studied by Pan et al. in the Qianzhuang section (where palynological assemblages were classified as Bisaccates-Jiaohepollis, Classopollis-Jiaohepollis-Cicatricosisporites, and Cicatricosisporites-Foraminisporis) [29]. This may be due to the development of saline lake deposits in the Haijiazhuang, Guyuan, Naijiahe, and Madongshan areas during the Lower Cretaceous given the general association of Cheirolepidiaceae plants with hot, dry, and saline-alkaline environments [56,57]. The Haijiazhuang section is located in the Guyuan area, where saltwater lakes developed. The deposition of Zone I was affected by saltwater lakes, and the Cheirolepidiaceae were extremely widespread. Hence, this section was located around the lake basin or the spillway highland. With the gradual wetting of the climate, the Araucariaceae growing in the warm and humid environment in the shade of the tropical-subtropical mountains gradually flourished, and the Araucariaceae became the dominant population in place of the Cheirolepidiaceae during the deposition of Zone III.
In conclusion, the vegetation of the Lower Cretaceous Madongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin transitioned from Cheirolepidiaceae to Araucariaceae. Given the succession of dominant vegetation, the environment changed from a subtropical arid to a subtropical warm semi-arid, and finally to a subtropical semi-humid climate.

5.3. Paleoclimatic Responses to Regional Tectonic and Global Climatic Events

5.3.1. Responses to Regional Tectonic Events

In the Middle and Late Jurassic, an intermittent tectonic paleo-uplift zone began to form at the western margin of the Great Ordos Basin. This paleo-uplift zone initially developed and formed in the Callovian (Middle Jurassic) and the Hauterivian (Lower Cretaceous; 165–130 Ma approximately); it rose again at 120–110 Ma. The Liupanshan Basin started to develop at the Hauterivian-Barremian boundary in the Lower Cretaceous (Lower Cretaceous; approximately 130 Ma), and the sedimentation of the Madongshan Formation (118.3~109.6 Ma) coincided with the peak stage of the lake basin development and the recurrent rise of the paleo-uplift. The basin shrank during the sedimentation of the Naijiahe Formation (about 109.6–100.0 Ma, late Albian) [16,29]. In this study, the geological age of the Madongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin was determined to be Aptian-Albian based on the palynological assemblage, stratigraphic lithology characteristics, and published paleomagnetic data. The palynological assemblage of the Madongshan Formation is dominated by gymnosperm pollen, and the Classopollis content is consistently high, whereas fern spores are rare. Although the reported palynological assemblages of the Sikouzi section, also located in the Liupanshan Basin, differ from those of the Haijiazhuang section, they share the aforementioned characteristics. In addition, the climatic characteristics implied by the Sikouzi and Qianzhuang sections (Figure 7) of the Liupanshan Basin are consistent with those inferred for the Haijiazhuang section; that is, the climate changed from drought to humid during the sedimentation of the Madongshan Formation [29,33].
The geological age of the Lower Jingchuan Formation in the Ordos Basin is similar to that of the Madongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin [32,47,49]. The palynological assemblages (Cyathidites-Pinuspollenites-Piceites) of the Jingchuan Formation at the southwestern margin of the Ordos Basin have high Bisaccates but low Classopollis abundances. This indicates a constantly cool and humid environment during the depositional period [32]. The palynological assemblages (Cicatricosisporites-Densoisporites-Piceaepollenites) of the Jingchuan Formation from sections on the northwestern margin of the Ordos Basin also support this conclusion (Figure 7) [31]. The Jingchuan Formation at the Haijiazhuang, Sikouzi, and Qianzhuang sections of the Liupanshan Basin did not record a transition from arid to humid climates. This suggests that intermittent tectonic uplift during the Jurassic and Cretaceous modified the paleogeographic settings of the Liupanshan Basin and its neighboring Ordos Basin. During the deposition of the Madongshan Formation, the paleoclimate was affected by regional palaeogeographic changes, resulting in differences between the Liupanshan Basin and its adjacent areas.

5.3.2. Responses to Global Climatic Events

During the Jurassic and Cretaceous, the tectonic regime of the East Asian Plate changed significantly, giving rise to an East Asian convergent tectonic system with intracontinental subduction and orogeny. This convergence has led to the formation of the East China Plateau [8,58,59,60]. Furthermore, the Liupanshan Basin began to develop at the Hauterivian-Barremian boundary in the Lower Cretaceous (approximately 130 Ma); it was then already separated from the Great Ordos Basin [16,29]. In the Aptian-Albian (about 120–110 Ma), the paleo-uplift rose again. The East China Plateau began to collapse at the beginning of the Aptian (125 Ma) [17,61]. This allowed the airflow previously blocked by the plateau to enter the interior, while the paleo-uplift prevented the airflow from moving further inland. Therefore, as revealed by the Haijiazhuang section, the climate was arid during the early depositional period of the Madongshan Formation. However, during the late depositional period, the environment became warmer and more humid than before. This is likely due to global climate variations [33].
To date, several studies have demonstrated a rapid global cooling event at the Aptian-Albian boundary (or in the Late Aptian). For example, late Aptian glendonites from the Sverdrup Basin, Canadian Arctic, and from Spitsbergen, Norway, indicated near-freezing underwater temperatures [62,63]. Moreover, McAnena et al. utilized the North Atlantic DSDP545 TEX86 proxy to reconstruct paleo-sea surface temperatures and discovered an obvious cooling event during the upper Aptian. Geochemical and micropaleontological evidence from drill cores of marine sediments suggested that the cooling may have triggered an ecological crisis in the oceans [64]. The global sea level curve showed a rapid sea level drop of at least 50 m at the Aptian-Albian boundary. The whole-rock δ18O data obtained from the Exmouth Plateau, Australia, indicate a co-occurrence of the sea-level drop and a δ18O enrichment of more than 0.8‰, even exceeding 1‰ [24,65,66]. In addition, fossils of marine reptiles that live at high latitudes have been discovered in the late Aptian sediments in southeast Australia, indicating a paleoclimate in which the seasonal extreme lows were close to the freezing point [66]. Given all this evidence, the global oceans cooled significantly at the Aptian-Albian boundary (Table 2).
According to records found in terrestrial sediments, it is likely that the climate became colder and more humid at this boundary (Table 3). For example, the evolution of the carbonate platform in the Serdj-Bargou region of central Tunisia shows that the coral-gravel-sponge assemblage in biogenic carbonate rocks was replaced by oolitic material in the late Aptian [67]. Similarly, the kaolinite clay content increased in sediments of north Sicily at the Aptian-Albian boundary [68]. The analysis of cluster isotopes of calcinous nodules in Early Cretaceous paleosoil of the Xiagou and Zhonggou Formations (Jiuquan Basin, western China) yielded an average temperature of about 15 °C from the late Aptian to the early Albian and the climate was cool and humid [69,70]. Analysis of climatic indicators such as the CIA value, δ18O value, kaolinite content, radioactive element ratios, and the spore-powder combination of continental fine-grained sediments in the Fuxin Basin in northeastern China led to two implications. One, the climate became cooler in the late Aptian period. Two, the humidity increased from low in the late early Aptian to moderate in the late Aptian [59]. The late Aptian vegetation in the Sergipe Basin, northeast Brazil, was reconstructed using the IndVal index, from which it was concluded that Araucariacites and ferns replaced Classopollis as the dominant species during that time period [71]. The palynological assemblages from the Doseo Basin (central Africa), the Liupanshan Basin (the present study), and southern China combined provide evidence for significant increases in abundances of hygrophilous species at the Aptian-Albian boundary [33,72,73,74,75]. These findings reflect a climate fluctuation at the Aptian-Albian boundary: the climate became simultaneously colder and more humid.
In summary, the climatic drought during the sedimentation of Zone I was a response to regional tectonic events leading to the paleo-uplift. The tectonic uplift in the Jurassic and Cretaceous modified the paleogeographic setting such that the Liupanshan Basin was separated from the Great Ordos Basin to evolve independently. Moreover, the uplift significantly affected the regional climate transitions. The relatively humid climate during the sedimentation of Zone III was a response to the rapidly cooling global climate during the Aptian-Albian transition. The changes in the palynological assemblage during the sedimentation of the Madongshan Formation indicated that climate change and regional tectonic activities jointly influenced the paleoclimatic evolution in Northwest China. The climate change during the Aptian-Albian transition affected the paleoclimatic evolution in northwest China later than the regional tectonic activity.

6. Conclusions

This paper provides key insights based on a palynological study of the Lower Cretaceous in the Liupanshan Basin, Northwest China, and the analysis of the Middle Jurassic and Early Cretaceous sedimentary facies and paleogeography in both the Liupanshan Basin and the adjacent Ordos Basin. It highlights the response of Northwest China to regional tectonic events and global climate change. The conclusions are as follows.
The geological age of the Lower Cretaceous Matdongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin is Aptian-Albian, Early Cretaceous. It can be divided into three palynological assemblage zones (Zones I-III) from bottom to top: Classopollis-Araucariacites, Classopollis-Araucariacites-Bisaccates, and Araucariacites-Classopollis-Jiaohepollis. The three palynological assemblage zones imply the evolution from subtropical arid to subtropical warm and semi-arid, and eventually to subtropical and semi-humid climate. During the sedimentation of Zone I, Classopollis was absolutely dominant, reflecting the hot and arid climate, while the palynological assemblage in the adjacent Ordos Basin was dominated by Bisaccates, reflecting a cool and humid climate. Hence, the tectonic uplift in the Jurassic-Cretaceous obviously influenced the regional paleoclimate in the Liupanshan Basin and adjacent areas. During the sedimentation of Zone III, the abundance of Classopollis decreased, Araucariacites began to dominate, and the climate developed toward higher humidity. This change from a dry to a wet climate was a response to a global cooling event during the Aptian-Albian transition. Our findings imply that climate change during the Aptian-Albian transition and regional tectonic activities influenced the paleoclimatic evolution in Northwest China, and the influence of climate change during the Aptian-Albian transition succeeded that caused by regional tectonic activities. The paleoclimatic differences were caused by the Jurassic—Cretaceous tectonic changes in the Liupanshan Basin and its adjacent areas. This study provided paleoclimatic evidence for the evolution of the paleogeographical pattern of the Liupanshan Basin and the tectonic events of the Jurassic-Cretaceous period and offered more reference materials for the climate evolution of the Early Cretaceous in Northwest China.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, B.L., F.W. and Z.L.; methodology, B.L. and L.W.; software, B.L. and L.W.; validation, B.L. and L.W.; formal analysis, F.W. and Z.L.; investigation, X.D.; resources, L.W. and Z.L.; data curation, B.L.; writing—original draft preparation, B.L.; writing—review and editing, F.W. and L.W.; visualization, B.L., supervision, F.W. and X.D.; project administration, Z.L.; funding acquisition, Z.L. and F.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China grant number No. U2244220 and the APC was funded by Research Topic on the Planning for the Protection and Utilization of Tourism Geological Resources in Key Areas of Liupan Mountain, Ningxia.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Thomas Bader and Yang Ya’nan for their valuable advice on English grammar. We especially thank Zhang Shuanhong and Wang Zongxiu for their helpful discussions and constructive suggestions on the manuscript. Finally, we thank the editor and anonymous reviewers for their comments that helped to improve the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Structural sketch map of the North China Plate (based on [30]). The sampled Haijiazhuang section is located at 35°53′47″ N and 106°12′11″ E [29,31,32,33].
Figure 1. Structural sketch map of the North China Plate (based on [30]). The sampled Haijiazhuang section is located at 35°53′47″ N and 106°12′11″ E [29,31,32,33].
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Figure 3. Column diagram of the Cretaceous Madongshan Formation at the Haijiazhuang section, Liupanshan Basin.
Figure 3. Column diagram of the Cretaceous Madongshan Formation at the Haijiazhuang section, Liupanshan Basin.
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Figure 4. Photographs of representative Cretaceous palynomorphs recovered from the Liupanshan Basin. (A) Araucariacites australis, sample HJZ-15, slide H15/1, England Finder coordinates K55(3), (B) Erlianpollis sp., HJZ-21, H21/1, W58(1), (C) Punctatisporites incognatus, HJZ-6, H6/2, Q31(2), (D) Cycadopites sp., HJZ-21, H21/1, J24(3), (E) Ginkgoretectina sp., HJZ-2, H2/1, V16(4), (F) Jiaohepollis scutellatus, HJZ-12, H12/2, W28(4), (G) Jiaohepollis verus, HJZ-15, H15/1, R58(0), (H) Jiaohepollis flexuosus, HJZ-6, H6/1, O52(0), (I) Jiaohepollis bellus, HJZ-19, H19/2, L55(3), (J) Cedripites densireticulatus, HJZ-24, H24/2, M64(1), (K) Pinuspollenites sp., HJZ-19, H19/1, N46(0), (L,M) Classopollis annulatus, HJZ-23, HJZ-25, H23/2, H25/1, Y43(2), H29(4), (N) Classopollis classoides, HJZ-24, H24/1, R45(0), (O) Inaperturopollenites limbatus, HJZ-10, H10/2, U38(3), (P) Retiverrucispora sp., HJZ-6, H6/2, V37(1), (Q) Callialasporites sp., HJZ-22, H22/1, T41(4), (R) Punctatisporites leighensis, HJZ-2, H2/2, O43(4), (S) Appendicisporites macrorhyzus, HJZ-6, H6/2, U62(2), (T)Sphagnumsporites apolaris, HJZ-2, H2/2, O32(1), (U) Verrucosisporites rotundus, HJZ-10, H10/1, P44(2), (V) Undulatisporites sp., HJZ-6, H6/2, H25(1), (W) Cicatricosisporites hallei, HJZ-10, H10/2, D33(3), (X) Cicatricosisporites australiensis, HJZ-19, H19/2, O53(2).
Figure 4. Photographs of representative Cretaceous palynomorphs recovered from the Liupanshan Basin. (A) Araucariacites australis, sample HJZ-15, slide H15/1, England Finder coordinates K55(3), (B) Erlianpollis sp., HJZ-21, H21/1, W58(1), (C) Punctatisporites incognatus, HJZ-6, H6/2, Q31(2), (D) Cycadopites sp., HJZ-21, H21/1, J24(3), (E) Ginkgoretectina sp., HJZ-2, H2/1, V16(4), (F) Jiaohepollis scutellatus, HJZ-12, H12/2, W28(4), (G) Jiaohepollis verus, HJZ-15, H15/1, R58(0), (H) Jiaohepollis flexuosus, HJZ-6, H6/1, O52(0), (I) Jiaohepollis bellus, HJZ-19, H19/2, L55(3), (J) Cedripites densireticulatus, HJZ-24, H24/2, M64(1), (K) Pinuspollenites sp., HJZ-19, H19/1, N46(0), (L,M) Classopollis annulatus, HJZ-23, HJZ-25, H23/2, H25/1, Y43(2), H29(4), (N) Classopollis classoides, HJZ-24, H24/1, R45(0), (O) Inaperturopollenites limbatus, HJZ-10, H10/2, U38(3), (P) Retiverrucispora sp., HJZ-6, H6/2, V37(1), (Q) Callialasporites sp., HJZ-22, H22/1, T41(4), (R) Punctatisporites leighensis, HJZ-2, H2/2, O43(4), (S) Appendicisporites macrorhyzus, HJZ-6, H6/2, U62(2), (T)Sphagnumsporites apolaris, HJZ-2, H2/2, O32(1), (U) Verrucosisporites rotundus, HJZ-10, H10/1, P44(2), (V) Undulatisporites sp., HJZ-6, H6/2, H25(1), (W) Cicatricosisporites hallei, HJZ-10, H10/2, D33(3), (X) Cicatricosisporites australiensis, HJZ-19, H19/2, O53(2).
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Figure 5. Palynomorphs diagram showing the proportions of the principal taxa in the Madongshan Formation.
Figure 5. Palynomorphs diagram showing the proportions of the principal taxa in the Madongshan Formation.
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Figure 6. Stratigraphic correlation between Liupanshan and Bao’an Groups [16,29,32,33,49].
Figure 6. Stratigraphic correlation between Liupanshan and Bao’an Groups [16,29,32,33,49].
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Figure 7. Paleoclimate comparison between the Liupanshan Basin and adjacent areas [29,31,32,33].
Figure 7. Paleoclimate comparison between the Liupanshan Basin and adjacent areas [29,31,32,33].
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Table 1. Ecological habits of the major spore- and pollen-producing plants whose relics are preserved in the Madongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin.
Table 1. Ecological habits of the major spore- and pollen-producing plants whose relics are preserved in the Madongshan Formation in the Liupanshan Basin.
Spore-Pollen Taxa or CategoryBotanical AffinityEcological TypeTypes of
Climatic Zones		Vegetation Component
DictyophylliditesDipteridaceaehygrophytictropical-subtropicalshrub
Concavisporiteshygrophytictropical-subtropicalshrub
PunctatisporitesFilicopsidahygrophytictropical-temperate zoneHerb
ToroisporisOsmundaceaehygrophytictropical-subtropicalshrub
CicatricosisporitesLygodiaceaehygrophytictropicalshrub
Appendicisporiteshygrophytictropicalshrub
SphagnumsporitesSphagnaceaehygrophytictropicalHerb
UndulatisporitesOphioglossaceaehygrophytictropicalHerb
AraucariacitesAraucariaceaemesophytictropical-subtropicalconifer
Callialasporitesmesophytictropical-subtropicalconifer
Psophosphaeramesophytictropical-subtropicalconifer
Jiaohepollismesophytictropical-subtropicalconifer
PerinopollenitesCupressaceaemesophytictemperate zoneconifer
Inaperturopollenitesmesophytictemperate zoneconifer
PodocarpiditesPodocarpaceaemesophytictropical-subtropicalconifer
ClassopollisCheirolepidiaceaexerophytictropical-subtropicalconifer
CedripitesPinaceaemesophytictropical-temperate zoneconifer
Pinuspollenitesmesophytictropical-temperate zoneconifer
Piceaepollientiesmesophytictropical-temperate zoneconifer
Abiespollentiesmesophytictropical-temperate zoneconifer
Erlianpollismesophytictropical-temperate zoneconifer
PaleoconiferusConiferalesmesophytictemperate zoneconifer
Protoconiferusmesophytictemperate zoneconifer
Protopinusmesophytictemperate zoneconifer
CycadopitesCycadaceaemesophytictropicalbroadleaved trees
GinkgoretectinaGinkgoaceaemesophytictemperate zonebroadleaved trees
VerrucosisporitesUncertain---
RetiverrucisporaUncertain---
Table 2. Marine environmental conditions at the Aptian-Albian boundary (or in the Late Aptian).
Table 2. Marine environmental conditions at the Aptian-Albian boundary (or in the Late Aptian).
RegionClimate ReferenceClimate SignificancePeriod
Sverdrup Basin, Canadian Arctic, and Spitsbergen, NorwayglendonitesThe sea water temperature is close to the freezing point.Late Aptian
North AtlanticTEX86The surface temperature of the ancient seawater dropped significantly.Late Aptian
Southeast AustraliaFossils of marine reptiles in high-latitude regionsThe paleoclimate conditions during this period were extremely cold seasonally to near freezing point.Late Aptian
Exmouth Plateau, Australiaδ18O > 0.8‰The temperature of seawater has decreased.Aptian-Albian boundary
GlobalThe sea level curve is declining.The temperature of seawater has decreased.Aptian-Albian boundary
Table 3. Changes in spores and pollen/vegetation types at the transition of the Aptian-Albian period (Late Aptian) in representative basins.
Table 3. Changes in spores and pollen/vegetation types at the transition of the Aptian-Albian period (Late Aptian) in representative basins.
RegionMain Spores and Pollen TypesIndicated ClimatePeriod
Sergipe Basin, northeast BrazilThe Cheirolepidiaceae represented by Classopollis, transformed into ferns, and the Araucariaceae, represented by AraucariaciteshumidLate Aptian
Deseo Basin, central AfricaHygrophilous species, such as Cyathidites, Cicatricosiporites, Callialaporites, Dictyophyllites, Osmundacidites, Araucariacites increased markedlyhumidAptian-Albian boundary
Hefei Basin, ChinaCupressaceae, Lygodiaceae, AraucariaceaeWarm and humidAptian-Albian boundary
Jianghan Basin, China
Jiansu Basin, China
Liupanshan Basin, China (this study)The Cheirolepidiaceae represented by Classopollis, transformed into ferns and the Araucariaceae represented by AraucariaciteshumidAptian-Albian boundary
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Liu, B.; Wu, F.; Wei, L.; Li, Z.; Dong, X. Response of Cretaceous Palynological Records to Regional Tectonic Events and Global Climate Change in Liupanshan Basin, Northwest China. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 5900. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115900

AMA Style

Liu B, Wu F, Wei L, Li Z, Dong X. Response of Cretaceous Palynological Records to Regional Tectonic Events and Global Climate Change in Liupanshan Basin, Northwest China. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(11):5900. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115900

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Bohua, Fang Wu, Lijie Wei, Zhenhong Li, and Xiaopeng Dong. 2025. "Response of Cretaceous Palynological Records to Regional Tectonic Events and Global Climate Change in Liupanshan Basin, Northwest China" Applied Sciences 15, no. 11: 5900. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115900

APA Style

Liu, B., Wu, F., Wei, L., Li, Z., & Dong, X. (2025). Response of Cretaceous Palynological Records to Regional Tectonic Events and Global Climate Change in Liupanshan Basin, Northwest China. Applied Sciences, 15(11), 5900. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115900

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